Combustion and Emissions Characteristics of Biodiesel Fuel
Alan C. Hansen Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering University of Illinois
CABER Seminar May 5, 2008
Outline of Presentation
Introduction What is biodiesel? What are its advantages and disadvantages? How is biodiesel produced? How much is being used at present? How does it compare to other fuels? Some fundamentals of combustion and emissions Combustion and emissions comparisons between biodiesel and diesel fuel using engine measurements and models Final comments
What is Biodiesel?
Technical Definition for Biodiesel (ASTM D 6751):
Biodiesel, na fuel comprising mono-alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids derived from vegetable oils or animal fats, designated B100, and meeting the requirements of ASTM D 6751.
Conversion to ester reduces viscosity to same level as diesel fuel and potentially increases cetane number to be the same or even higher than diesel fuel
What are the advantages of biodiesel fuel?
Renewable
carbon neutral
Biodegradable
benefits environment
Domestically grown
reducing imported oils
Low emissions
except maybe NOx
No engine modifications required
except replacing some fuel lines for older engines
Safer
less flammable
Non-toxic
Advantages of Biodiesel (cont.)
Very favorable energy balance, 3.2 to 1 Can be blended in any proportion with petroleum diesel fuel High cetane number and excellent lubricity Very high flashpoint (>300F) Can be made from waste restaurant oils and animal fats
What are the disadvantages of biodiesel fuel?
Lower energy content
6-9% less energy per unit volume for B100 Effect of B2 B10 on power less than 1%
Soybean oil-based biodiesel will start to crystallize at around 0C. This can be mitigated by blending with diesel fuel or with additives. Biodiesel is less oxidatively stable than petroleum diesel fuel. Old fuel can become acidic and form sediments and varnish. Additives can prevent this. There is limited supply. Soybean oil is widely available but expensive. Inedible animal fats are less expensive but have limited supply.
Disadvantages of biodiesel
Cost is high and is feedstock sensitive
Government subsidies allow biodiesel to compete with petroleum-based diesel fuel
3% 1% 12% 2% 7%
75%
Oil Feedstock Energy General Overhead Chemical Feedstocks Direct Labor Depreciation
(Source: Van Gerpen, J., 2004)
How is biodiesel produced?
A simplified representation of biodiesel production: Transesterification Chemical reaction between methanol or ethanol and a vegetable oil or animal fat Requires a catalyst, such as caustic soda (NaOH) or KOH Removal of glycerin reduces viscosity
Biodiesel Production: Soybeans
One Bushel Soybeans OR 100 kg Soybeans
~1.5 gallons Soybean oil
~1.5 gallons Biodiesel
~10 litres Soybean oil
~10 litres Biodiesel
Why not use straight vegetable oil?
Viscosity too high (x 10 that of biodiesel) Cetane number too low (below ASTM limit of 40) Poor atomization causes coking and deposits in combustion chamber Reacts with lubricating oil to create sludge and compromise lubrication
U.S. Biodiesel Production
450 400 350 300 Million 250 Gallons 200 Biodiesel 150 100 50 0 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007* est.
(Source: National Biodiesel Board - www.biodiesel.org) NBB goal: Replace equivalent of 5 % of nations on-road diesel fuel with biodiesel by 2015
Biodiesel Production in EU
1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0
EU Biodiesel Cons. (millions gallons)
EU Production Capacity: 3 billion gallons
1998 2000 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Source: European Biodiesel Board (www.ebb-eu.org)
US and EU Biodiesel Production Comparison
3 2.5 2
Billion 1.5 Gallons/Year
1 0.5 0
US US EU EU Production Production Production Production 2007 Capacity 2006 Capacity 2007 2006
Diesel versus biodiesel consumption
US Gasoline Consumption: 146 Billion Gallons/year
60 50 40
Billion 30 Gallons/Year
20 10 0
US US Diesel Consumption Production 2007 2007 US Production Capacity 2007 EU Production 2006 EU Production Capacity 2006
Biodiesel Usage at Present (U.S.)
as a low-level blend (B2 B5, B11)
for lubricity purposes non-sulfur formula US EPA requirement for sulfur
15 ppm Oct 2006 for on-road vehicles
as a medium-level blend (B20-B50)
Energy Policy Act credit; federal incentive
as a neat fuel (B100)
6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 #2 Diesel 1/2% BD 1% BD 2% BD 100% BD
(Source: Schumacher, L.G., 2004)
SL-BOCLE ASTM D 6078 Lubricity test
3400 2600 2100
5450
3500
Increasing lubricity with increasing biodiesel %
Energy Content (kJ/Litre) 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 40000 45000 5000
0
se l l
D ie Bi od i es e G as ol in e an o l E8 5 Pr op an e LN G Et h an o M l et ha no Bu t
Source: McCormick (2006)
Energy Density of Fuels
C N G
Li qu
l id @ 36 26 H 2 ps i
Fossil Energy Ratio
Source: McCormick (2006)
Do we have enough land for oil crops from which to produce biodiesel?
4500 4000 3500 3000 lbs oil/acre 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0
So yb e Su an nf lo w er Pe an ut C an ol a O liv e C as to r Ja tr op ha C oc on ut Pa lm A lg ae
6,000-36,000 lbs oil/acre
Crop
Source: Wikipedia
Soybean Fatty Acid Composition
90 80
Percentage Content
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Palmitic Acid Stearic Acid (C16:0) (C18:0) Min-Graboski Max-NSRL2000 Oleic Acid (C18:1) Linoleic Acid Linolenic Acid (C18:2) (C18:3) Min-NSRL2000
Max-Graboski High Oleic Acid
Graboski, M.S. and R.L. McCormick, 1998. Combustion of fat and vegetable oil derived fuels in diesel engines. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 24:125-164 NSRL, 2000. Illinois variety trials (2000), Varietal Information Program for Soybeans, NSRL
Range of Fatty Acid Composition
100 90 Percentage in Oil or Fat 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
C8:0 C10:0 C12:0 C14:0 C16:0 C18:0 C20:0 C22:0 C24:0 C18:1 C22:1 C18:2 C18.3
Soybean Rapeseed Beef Tallow Peanut Canola Olive Coconut Corn Palm Safflower
Sunflower Sunola Butterfat Lard Cottonseed Crambe Linseed H.O. Safflower Sesame
Upper Lower Average
Fatty Acids
Cetane Number and Fatty Acids
90 80 70 Cetane Number 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Palmitic (C16:0) Stearic (C18:0) Oleic (C18:1) Methyl Esters Linoleic (C18:2) Linolenic (C18:3)
(Source: Graboski and McCormick, 1998)
CN increase with increasing saturation and with increasing chain length
How a Four-Stroke Engine Works
Comparison of Conventional Engines and HCCI/LTC
Making gasoline engines run more like diesels and diesel engines more like gasoline
Some Combustion Chemistry: Lean vs Rich Mixtures
Diesel fuel molecule represented as C16H34 Chemically correct air-fuel ratio assumes all fuel burnt to CO2 and H2O C16H34 + 24.5O2 + 92N2 92N2 + 16CO2 + 17H2O
1 kg
14.9 kg
3.1 kg
Chemically correct air to fuel ratio: 14.9: 1
Soybean biodiesel fuel molecule: C19H36O2 1 kg fuel and 12.5 kg air 2.8 kg CO2
Note the Oxygen in the fuel molecule
Chemically correct air to fuel ratio: 12.5: 1
Requires less air than diesel
Air-Fuel Mixing in Diesel Engines
Impossible to obtain uniform mixing of air & fuel in diesel engine
Single spray plume from injector Rich Spray Core Correct A/F Ratio Lean A/F Mixture
Very Lean In betweencombustible A/F ratio Very Rich
How is energy released in diesel combustion?
Premixed combustion
Fuel that evaporates and mixes with air during ignition delay burns simultaneously, producing sharp peak in energy release
Diffusion (mixing-controlled) combustion
Air and fuel vapor diffuse toward each other to continue combustion Slower process than premixed phase
Ignition delay controls proportions of energy released in premixed & diffusion combustion phases
IGNITION DELAY START COMBUSTION
START INJECTION
HDC
NOx/Soot Trade-Off and LTC Combustion
Increased Soot Formation
l na io nt ot e nv x/So off C o O eN ad Tr
Fuel-Air Mixture Leaner Richer
LTC Target
Increased NOx Formation
Low
Combustion Temperature
High
LTC Low Temperature Combustion
Nonroad EPA Emission Standards
0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
*Dependent on power range **PM full compliance by 2011 NOx 50% compliance 2011-2013
Tier I (1996)
PM (g/kWh)
EPA Emission Standards: Nonroad Diesel Engines 130kW Power 560 kW
Tier 3 (2006) Tier 4 (2011-2014)**
Tier 2 (2001-2003)*
10
NOx (g/kWh)
Source: www.dieselnet.com
Nonroad EU Emission Standards
0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
Stage I (1999)
PM (g/kWh)
Europe Emission Standards: Nonroad Diesel Engines 130kW Power 560 kW
Stage IIIA (2006) Stage IV (2014) Stage IIIB (2011) 0 2 4
Stage II (2002)
10
NOx (g/kWh)
Source: www.dieselnet.com
Impact of Biodiesel on Emissions
HC emission (g/hp-hr)
0.25
1.60 1.40
CO emission (g/hp-hr)
0.12 0.10 0.08
PM emission (g/hp-hr)
5.10
NOx emission (g/hp-hr)
0.20
1.20
-15% -41%
-11% -38%
5.00 4.90 4.80 4.70 4.60 4.50
10%
0.15
-17%
1.00 0.80
0.06 0.04 0.02 0.00
3%
0.10
0.60 0.40
0.05
-84%
B100 B20 D2
0.20 0.00 B100 B20 D2
4.40 4.30 B100 B20 D2 B100 B20 D2
0.00
Key regulated emissions for compression-ignition (diesel) engines are particulate matter (PM) and Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) PM created from incomplete combustion NOx caused by high temperatures in combustion chamber oxidizing nitrogen
(Sharp et al., 2000)
U.S. EPA Emissions Regulations
0.7 0.6 0.5 PM (g/kWh) 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 2 4 NOx (g/kWh) 6 8 10
Tier 1
C16:0 C18:0 C18:1 C18:2 C18:3 Diesel Soydiesel Tier 1 Tier 2 Tier 3 Tier 4
Tier 2
Tier 4
Tier 3
Saturated fatty acid esters produce lower emissions (Data Source: Graboski and McCormick, 1998)
MechSE Optical Engine Facility
Quartz Piston Side Window
3-D Imaging
Piston Extension
Hydraulic System
Implement high speed camera and laser techniques Analyze combustion products and exhaust gases Investigate effect of multiple injection strategies for Low Temperature Combustion (LTC)
Soot Diagnostics: Back Illumination Light Extinction
Fiber from Copper vapor laser
Light Diffuser
Band pass Filter
Narrow band pass filters (~ 5nm) to reduce combustion noise, Frame rate: 12000 fps Measurement area denoted by the black rectangle Due to the curvature of two side-windows only part of soot is measured
Single versus Split Injection
Single Split
Effect of Split Injection
Up to 5 independent fuel injections per cycle are now achievable at the prototype level from the major Fuel Injection Equipment suppliers
SAE 940897
Effect of Split Injection (cont.)
SAE 940897
Flame Development Comparison: B0 and B100
B0: -20, 0
B100: -20, 0
-7.00
3.50
5.75
8.00
B100: - 30, 10
14.00
20.00
26.00
38.00
Biodiesel fuel results in faster late cycle burning of soot than European low sulfur diesel fuel
18.50
20.00
26.00
38.00
Increasing gap between first injection and main injection helps reduce soot emissions
(Lee et al. 2006)
Soot Images Comparison: B0 and B100
B0: -20, 0 Crank angles: 41, 47, 53, 65, 77, 89, 128 CAD ATDC
B100: -20, 0 Crank angles: 41, 47, 53, 65, 77, 89, 128 CAD ATDC
Bio-diesel leads to weaker soot signal than European low sulfur diesel fuel
(Lee et al. 2006)
Biofuel Combustion and Emissions Modeling
KIVA combustion model modified for biodiesel and LTC
KIVA-3V: 3-D chemically reacting CFD model developed by Los Alamos National Laboratory to simulate work of internal combustion engines Sub-models for wall heat transfer, evaporation, turbulence, spray breakup, ignition, combustion and emissions formation Both biodiesel and biodiesel-diesel blend combustion modeled
Biodiesel Property Measurement and Computation for Combustion Modeling
Fatty Acid Profiles for Five Biodiesel Types
70 60 50 Soybean Percentage 40 30 20 10 0 C12:0 C14:0 C16:0 C18:0 Fatty Acid C18:1 C18:2 C18:3 Rapeseed Coconut Palm Beef Lard
Measured properties of biodiesel produced from source materials with a broad range of fatty acid compositions Updated computational models for estimating viscosity, surface tension, density, thermal conductivity for engine combustion modeling
9 8 Kinematic Viscosity,mm^2/s 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Max. limit ASTM D975 @ 40C Soybean Palm Rapeseed Beef Lard Coconut #2 Diesel
Kinematic Viscosity of Biodiesel from five different source materials
BDProp Program for computing biodiesel fuel properties
Temperature, C
KIVA Combustion Model results
Biodiesel
Diesel
Fuel injections at 330 and 370
(Lee et al. 2008)
NOx Emissions from Biodiesel (Lee et al. 2008)
Retarding main injection effectively reduces the emission Biodiesel may or may not increase NOx emission
NOx Emissions from Biodiesel
National Renewable Energy Lab reports no consistent effect Lab tests tend to show increase Chassis tests not conclusive Emissions affected by test cycle and engine technology
Metal Engine Experiments
6.0
BSNOX (g/kw-h)
John Deere 4045HF475 4-cylinder 4.5L engine (Tier II) Effect of Exhaust Gas Recirculation on NOx emissions from biodiesel and blends
5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0
1400 rpm, 500 Nm
D2 0 5 10 15 EGR (%)
B2
B20 20
B100 25
Particulate filter
Heat exchanger
EGR Valve
Low Pressure EGR System
Graduate Automotive Technology Education Center of Excellence for Advanced Automotive Bio-Fuel Combustion Engines
Mechanical Science and Engineering Comprehensive GATE syllabus (M.S./Ph.D) DOE support (GATE fellowships) Industrial advisory board Agricultural and Biological Engineering
Highly skilled UIUC graduates who can lead industrial application of bio-fuel engine technology
Final Comments
Biodiesel fuel as an alternative to petroleumbased diesel fuel has many advantages Fuel cost still plays a major role Source material can affect biodiesel fuel properties substantially While CO, HC and PM emissions are reduced, NOx emissions may increase in some engines Optical engine tests and combustion modeling provide insight into combustion and emissions processes Biodiesel shows some advantages over diesel fuel when Low Temperature Combustion strategies are applied
Thank you!
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