POLYNOMIALS

NUR LIYANA BT ZAIM

SITI IZZATI DYANAH BT ZAINAL
WAN IZZAH KAMILAH
CONTENT
4.1 Polynomial Identities
4.2 Remainder Theorem,
Factor Theorem and
Zeros of Polynomial
4.3 Partial Fractions Decomposition

4.1 Polynomial Identities
By the end of this topic, you should be
able to
Recognize monomials, binomials & trinomials
Define polynomials, & state the degree of a
polynomial & the leading coefficient
Perform addition, subtraction & multiplication
of polynomials
Perform division of polynomials

Introduction Basic Vocabulary
Monomial
where a is a constant (coefficient) and the power n is
a non-negative integer called degree
Nonmonomial
Binomial
The sum or difference of 2 monomial having different
degrees
Trinomial
The sum or difference of 3 monomial having different
degrees
Polynomial
The sum of monomials
n
ax
Polynomial Identities
Polynomials
A word derived from Greek many terms
Polynomial in the variable x in algebraic expression
Polynomial is write in the form
where is a constants (coefficients), is the leading
coefficient and the power n is a non-negative integer called the
degree of the polynomial (The highest power of x)
Identity
2 equation which have the same solution though expressed
differently ( use (equivalent) sign)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
for all values of P x Q x P x Q x x =

1
1 1 0
...
n n
n n
a x a x a x a

+ + + +
1 1 0
, ,..., ,
n n
a a a a
n
a
Example1 (Identity)
1. Given that
for all values of x.
Find the value of a, b and c.

2. Given that
for all values of x.
Find the value of a and b.


( ) ( )
2
3 2
2 5 1 1 x x ax x b x c + = + +
( )( )
3 2
2 6 5 2 2 2 x x x x ax b + + + +
TIPS: To find unknowns in an identity,
a) Substitute suitable values of x, or b) Equate coefficients of like powers of x

Adding & Subtracting Polynomials
Horizontal Addition & Subtraction
Group the like terms (monomials with the
same power) and then combine them

Vertical Addition & Subtraction
Vertically line up the like terms in each
polynomial and then add or subtract the
coefficients.
Example 2 (Adding & Subtracting)
4 2 3
1 1 2
5 1
5 3 3
x x x x
| | | |
+ + +
| |
\ . \ .
( ) ( )
3 2 3
12 9 11 3 4 5 8 x x x x x +
( ) ( ) ( )
5 4 2 4 3
0.003 1.89 5.5 0.33 1 1.3 2 1.556 x x x x x x + + + +
( ) ( )
3 2 3 2
9 7 5 3 13 2 8 6 x x x x x x + + + +
( ) ( )
3 2 3 2
2 5 9 7 5 3 x x x x x + + +
A

B

C

D

E
Multiplying Polynomials
Horizontal Multiplication
Using the Laws of exponents, & the
Commutative, Associative and Distributive
properties and then combine them

Vertical Multiplication
Write the polynomial with the greatest
number of terms in the top row.
Example 3 (Horizontal Multiplication)
( )( )
2 3
3 4 5 2 x x x +
( )
( )
2
2
2 4 x x
( )( )
2 3
2 3 2 5 2 x x x x + +
( )
3
5x
( )
5
4
2y
A

B

C

D

E
Example 4 (Vertical Multiplication)
( )( )
2 3 2
3 2 2 5 4 x x x x x +
( )
( )
2
4 5 2 3 x x x + + +
( )( )
2 3 2
2 3 5 4 7 x x x x x +
A

B

C

Special Product Formulas
( )( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
3
Difference of two square
Perfect square 2
2
Perfect Cubes
x a x a x a
x a x ax a
x a x ax a
x a
+ =
+ = + +
= +
+
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
3 2 2 3
3
3 2 2 3
3 3 2 2
3 3 2 2
3 3
3 3
Sum of two cubes
Difference of two cubes
x ax a x a
x a x ax a x a
x a x a x ax a
x a x a x ax a
= + + +
= +
+ = + +
= + +
Example 5 (Special Product)
( )
3
3 2 x
( )
3
2 5 x
( )( )
3 3
2 3 2 3 a a +
( )
2
3 7 x +
( )
2
5 6 y
A

B

C

D

E
Factoring Polynomials
Any polynomial
Look for common monomial factors
Binomials of degree 2 or higher
Check for a special products
Trinomials of degree 2
Check for a perfect square
Three or more terms
Grouping factored out the common factor
from each of several groups of terms.
Example 6 (Factoring any polynomial)
( ) ( )
2
3 5 3 x x x + + +
5 4 3
16 12 4 x x x +
3 2
4 3 12 x x x + + +
3 2
3 15 42 x x x
3 2
18 27 x x +
A

B

C

D

E
4 3 2
15 26 7 y y y + +
2
3 10 x x
2
8 22 5 x x +
2
6 19 7 x x +
2
3 20 28 x x +
F

G

H

I

J
Example 7 (Factoring special forms)
3
12 3 x x
10
9 16x
4
81 x
2
81 49 x
2
9 x
A

B

C

D

E
3
27 y
3
8 x +
3
64 125 x +
2
16 56 49 x x +
2
16 64 x x +
F

G

H

I

J
Division of a Polynomial
RECALL Dividing
Two integers
quotient
146
divisor 7 1025 divident
remainder
3

dividend = divisor quotient + remainder

Long Division for
polynomials

-The process is similar
like division for integers

-The process is stop
when the degree of the
remainder is less than the
degree of divisor
Example 8 (Long Division)
( )
( )
3
3 3 x x x + +
( )
( )
3 2
2 3 3 x x x +
( ) ( )
5 4 3 2
2 5 2 2 2 3 3 x x x x x x + + + +
( ) ( )
3 2
3 4 7 1 x x x x + + + +
( ) ( )
4 3 2
3 2 5 1 x x x x x + +
A

B

C

D

E
4.2 Remainder Theorem, Factor
Theorem & Zeros of Polynomials
At the end of this topic, you should be able to

Use the remainder and factor theorem
Identify the value of a such that (x + a) is a factor of
P (x) and factorize P (x) completely
Find the roots and the zeros of a polynomial
Determine the complex zeros of a polynomial up to
degree three
Remainder Theorem
The remainder theorem state that,
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
If a polynomial ( ) is divided by a
linear divisor the remainder is ( )
( )
( )
f x
x a f a
f x x a Q x f a
b
f x ax b Q x f
a

= +
| |
= +
|
\ .
Example 9 (Remainder Theorem)
2 4 x
2 x+
2 1 x
3 2
4 5 x x
3 x
A

B

C

D
Find the remainder if is divided by
Example 10 (Remainder Theorem)
6 a b + =
3 x
2
4 7 x px + (a) The expression leaves a remainder
-2 when divided by
Find the value of p
1 x +
3 2
2x ax bx c + + +
(b) Given that the expression
leaves the same remainder when divided by
or by .
Prove that
2 x
Factor Theorem
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
1. If is a factor of the polynomial then 0
2. If 0 then is a factor of the polynomial
x a f x f a
f a x a f x
=
=
The factor theorem state that,



Means that,
( ) ( ) ( )
is a factor of the polynomial 0 x a f x f a =
Example 11 (Factor Theorem)
1 x +
4 3 2
3 3 2 x x x x + + +
(a) Determine whether or not is a factor of
the following polynomials.
( )
6
2 1 4 x x x +
i)
ii)
1 x 3 x +
(b) Determine whether or not and is a
factor of
( )
3 2
2 2 3 f x x x x = +
Zeros of Polynomial
Use to solve polynomial function
A zero of a function f is any value of x for which
f (x) = 0

Number of real zeros
A polynomial function cannot have more
real zeros than its degree
The maximum number are n
Descartes Rule of Signs
Let f denote a polynomial function written in
standard form.

The number of positive real zeros of f either equals the
number of variation in the sign of the nonzero
coefficients of f (x) or else equals that number less an
even integer (2)

The number of negative real zeros of f either equals the
number of variation in the sign of the nonzero
coefficients of f (-x) or else equals that number less an
even integer (2)
Example 12 (Descartes Rule of Signs)
( )
6 4 3 2
3 4 3 2 3 f x x x x x x = + +
Determine the number of maximum real zeros,
positive real zeros and negative real zeros from
the following polynomials.
( )
3 2
2 11 7 6 f x x x x = +
i)

ii)
Rational Zeros Theorem
Let f be a polynomial function of degree 1 or
higher of the form

where each coefficient is an integer.

If in lowest terms, is a rational zero of f, then
p must be a factor of and q must be a factor
of
( )
1
1 1 0 0
... , 0, 0
n n
n n n
f x a x a x a x a a a

= + + + + = =
p
q
n
a
0
a
Example 13 (Rational Zeros Theorem)
( )
5 4 3 2
5 12 24 32 16 f x x x x x x = + +
Listing all the potential real zeros from the following
polynomials.
( )
3 2
2 11 7 6 f x x x x = +
i)

ii)
Finding the Real Zeros
Step 1: Determine the maximum number of zeros degree

Step 2: Determine the number of positive & negative zeros
Descartes Rule of Signs

Step 3: Identify those rational numbers that potentially can
be zeros Rational Zeros Theorem

Step 4: Test each potential rational zeros long division

Step 5: Repeat Step 3 if a zero is found

Step 6: If possible, use the factoring techniques to find the
zeros
Example 14 (Finding Real Zeros)
( )
5 4 3 2
5 12 24 32 16 f x x x x x x = + +
Find all the real zeros from the following
polynomials.
( )
3 2
2 11 7 6 f x x x x = +
i)

ii)
4.3 Partial Fraction
By the end of this topic, you should be
able to
Define partial fractions
Obtain partial fractions decomposition when
the denominators are in the form of
A linear factor
A repeated linear factor
A Quadratic factor that cannot be factorised
A repeated quadratic factor
What is partial fractions
Consider the problem of adding 2 fraction



The reverse procedure
2
3 2 5 1
4 3 12
x
x x x x

+ =
+ +
2
5 1 3 2
12 4 3
x
x x x x

= +
+ +
Partial fraction decomposition Partial fraction
Partial fraction
What is partial fractions
Any rational function

where the degree of P is less than the degree of Q,
could be expressed as a sum of relatively simpler
rational functions, called partial fractions.

If f (x) is improper, then by long division, dividing
Q into P until a remainder R (x) is obtained such
that degree of R is less than the degree of Q
( )
( )
( )
P x
f x
Q x
=
Case 1: The denominator Q (x) is
a product of distinct linear factor
( ) ( )( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 2 2
1 2
1 1 2 2
If ,
n n
n
n n
Q x a x b a x b a x b
P x
A A A
Q x a x b a x b a x b
= + + +
= + + +
+ + +
Examples
( )( )
( )( )
3
2
2 2
2 3 2
1 3
1. 3. 5.
2 3 4 1
5 2 1
2. 4. 6.
1 2 4 2 3 2
x x x
x x x x
x x x x
x x x x x x
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
Case 2: The denominator Q (x) is a
product of repeated linear factors
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 2
2
If ,
n
n
n
Q x ax b
P x
A A A
Q x ax b
ax b ax b
= +
= + + +
+
+ +
Examples
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
3
2 3
2
1 3 4
1. 3.
2 2 1
1
2. 4.
1 2 1
x
x x x
x x x
x x x x
+
+ +
+

Case 3: The denominator Q (x)
contains irreducible quadratic factors
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2
If , Q x ax bx c
P x
Ax B
Q x
ax bx c
= + +
+
=
+ +
Examples
( )
( )
( )
2
3
2
2
2
2
2 4
1. 3.
4
5
7 4 4 3 2
2. 4.
4 4 3
2 5
x x x
x x
x
x x x
x x
x x
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
Case 3: Q (x) contains a repeated
irreducible quadratic factors
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
1 1
2
2
If ,
n
n n
n
Q x ax bx c
P x
A x B A x B
Q x
ax bx c
ax bx c
= + +
+ +
= + +
+ +
+ +
Examples
( )
( )
( )( )
3 2
2 2
2 2 2
1
1. 2.
5 1 1 1
x x x
x x x x x x
+ +
+ + + +
Thank You