Human Physiology & Effects of Flight

understanding how the body and mind can be affected in flight as well as why they are affected in flight. clear understanding and overview of the many and varied physiological situations that can interfere with safe flight. prevent impairment and reduce the risk of a human factorsrelated incident or accident. being knowledgeable about the physiology of the body in the flight environment further increases safety.

Human Factors and Flight Safety

Why Important? Flight physiology and human factors both have an impact on flight. More than 70 percent of aviation accidents and incidents are in some way related to human factors.

Accident vs. Incident

An accident is one incident too many. No accident occurs without a series of incidents happening beforehand. Its a chain of events that will eventually end up as an accident unless someone breaks that chain. Contributing factor to an accident is probably associated with an incident of varying significance that could have been averted and the accident prevented. Always look for the contributing factors, because those usually can be controlled. The final event and the resulting accident cannot be reversed.

Flight physiology is the most important part of human factors. Its the human element of human factors and safe flight, and it has a direct effect on performance. Knowing flight physiology, being aware of its effects on performance, and maintaining a high index of suspicion when performance becomes substandard will continue to make everyone a better and safer pilot.

Human Factors & Flight Physilogy

the effects of fatigue, hypoglycemia, illness, noise, and other medical and psychological issues. Flight physiology is how the body and mind work in the flying environment. It includes such topics as understanding how our organs function, what keeps them from functioning in a hostile environment, and what the pilot can do to protect these functions before and during flight. It is essential to safe flight. Flight physiology, therefore, is an integral part of human factors and safe flight.

FRAMEWORK OF HUMAN FACTORS

H S L L E

SHELL

S - Software (procedures, documentation, symbology,

etc.)

H Hardware
(technology, machine, equipment)

E - Environment
(weather, temperature, noise)

L - Liveware (human)
(people, leader, follower, human element LIVEWARE Core of the model comprised of human operators, most flexible and critical component in the system.

The model is also important in explaining why the physiology of flight is important, since the human element is obviously crucial and central and every aspect of physiology will affect every other interaction as defined in the model. Human factors are how these interfaces and interactions ultimately affect performance; human factors are a dynamic process.

Flight Physiology Objectives

prevention of incapacitation or impairment, whether physical or mental.

Incapacitation & Impairment

Incapacitation is defined as being incapable of performing expected normal activity. Mental incapacitation is the minds inability to use proper judgment, reasoning, and decision making. Beyond that, mental incapacitation turns into neurological incapacitation, whereby the signals from the brain fail to use the sensory information and data from the eyes, ears, touch, smell, and the like. Physical incapacitation refers to the bodys inability to function in an expected way. The end result in any of these incapacitating or impairing situations is an unsafe and poorly performing pilot.

HUMAN ANATOMY

ELO #3

Identify the components of the circulatory system that transport oxygen throughout the human body.

how the body should work under ideal and controllable situations, and raise the level of awareness of what can, and often does, happen in less than ideal conditions. brain, musculoskeletal, gastrointestinal, metabolic, and circulatory.

What is Physiology?
The study of human systems' integrated functions and the processes by which they maintain the body functions.

What is Human Physiology?

Human physiology is the science of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of humans body system, which include the organs, and the cells of which they are composed.

Nervous system

Consists of the Central Nervous System (which is the brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system
The brain is the organ of thought, emotion, and sensory processing, and serves many aspects of communication and control of various other systems and functions. The special senses consist of: Vision > eye Hearing > ear Taste > tongue Smell > nose The eyes, ears, tongue and nose gather information about the body's environment.

Musculoskeletal System

Consists of the human skeleton (which includes bones, tendons, ligaments and cartilage) and attached muscles. It gives the body basic structure and the ability for movement. In addition to their structural role, the larger bones in the body contain bone marrow, the site of production of blood cells. Also, all bones are major storage sites for calcium and phosphate.

Gastrointestinal system

Consists of the mouth, esophagus, gut (small and large intestines), and rectum, as well as the liver, pancreas, gallbladder, and salivary glands.
It converts food into small, nutritional, non-toxic molecules for distribution by the circulation to all tissues of the body, and excretes the unused residue.

Circulatory System

Consists of the heart and blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries). The heart propels the circulation of the blood, which serves as a "transportation system" to transfer oxygen, fuel, nutrients, waste products, immune cells, and signalling molecules (i.e., hormones) from one part of the body to another. The blood consists of fluid that carries cells in the circulation, including some that move from

Circulatory System

FUNCTIONS OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Oxygen and nutrient (fuel) transport to the cells.

Transport of metabolic waste products to organ removal sites. Assists in temperature regulation.

Components of the Circulatory System

Blood transport of O2 and CO2

CO2 O2

Plasma

CO2 O2
hemoglobin molecule

CO2 O2
Red Blood Cell

O2
molecule

Metabolic System

Respiratory System

Respiratory system consists of the nose, nasopharynx, trachea, an lungs

It brings oxygen from the air and excretes carbon dioxide and back into the air.

The respiratory system consists of passages and organs that bring atmospheric air into the body

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Respiratory System

ELO #4

ACTION: Select the functions and types of respiration.

CONDITION: Given a list.

STANDARDS: IAW FM 3-04.301.

FUNCTIONS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Intake of Oxygen [O2]

Removal of Carbon Dioxide [CO2] Maintenance of body heat balance

Maintenance of body acid base balance [pH]

Phases of Respiration
Breathing in

Breathing out

Active Phase INHALATION

Passive Phase EXHALATION

COMPONENTS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Nasal/Oral pharynx Bronchiole Trachea Bronchi

Alveolar Ducts

Alveoli

Law of Gaseous Diffusion

Gas molecules of higher pressure move in the direction of gas molecules of a lower pressure

PO2 = 100mmHg PO2 = 70 mmHg

PO2 = 40mmHg PO2 = 70 mmHg

Blood Gas Exchange

Venous Capillary Hemoglobin Saturation 75%
PCO2 = 46 mm PO2 = 40 mm

CO2

Tissue

Alveoli
PO2 = 100 mm O2 PCO2 = 40 mm O2

CO2

PO2 = 1 - 60 mm PCO2 = 46 mm

O2

O2 PCO2 = 40 mm

PO2 = 100 mm

Arterial Capillary Hemoglobin Saturation 98%

Oxygen transport in the blood:

dependent on the partial pressure of oxygen.

pO2

PERCENT COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE REMAINS CONSTANT

BUT PRESSURE DECREASES WITH ALTITUDE

SIGNIFICANT PRESSURE ALTITUDES

ALTITUDE FEET 0 18,000 PRESSURE mm/HG 760 380 ATMOSPHERES 1 1/2

34,000
48,000 63,000

190
95 47

1/4
1/8 1/16

Physical characteristics of the atmosphere

The

atmosphere is like an ocean of air that surrounds the surface of the Earth. It is a mixture of water and gases. The atmosphere extends from the surface of the Earth to about 1,200 miles in space. Gravity holds the atmosphere in place. The atmosphere exhibits few physical characteristics; however, it shields the inhabitants of the Earth from ultraviolet radiation and other hazards in space. Without the atmosphere, the Earth would be as barren as the moon.
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The atmosphere consists of several concentric layers, each displaying its own unique characteristics. Each layer is known as a sphere. Thermal variances within the atmosphere help define these spheres, offering aviation personnel an insight into atmospheric conditions within each area. Between each of the spheres is an imaginary boundary, known as a pause.
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Troposphere
Troposphere

extends from sea level to about 26,405 feet over the poles to nearly 52,810 feet above the equator to about 158,430 feet (about 30 miles) to an altitude of 264,050 feet (50 miles)

Stratosphere
Tropopause

Mesosphere
Stratopause

Thermosphere
From

264,050 feet (50 miles) to about 435 miles above the Earth
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Standard Pressure and Temperature Values at 40 Degrees Latitude for Specific Altitudes

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Composition of the Air

78 Percent Nitrogen N2 21 Percent Oxygen 1 Percent Other

.03

percent CO2

21% O2

78% N2

Partial Pressure (Daltons Law)

760 mm Hg
47 95 190 380 523 760 --- mm/Hg -----------

Boyles Law This law states that the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure (temperature remaining constant). This applies to all gases. V1/V2 = P2/P1 (V1 is the initial volume of the gas, V2 is the final volume, P1 is the initial pressure on the gas volume, and P2 is the final pressure). In other words, if the pressure of the gas decreases with the temperature unchanging, then its volume increases and vice versa (Fig. 3-2). In dealing with gas expansion in the body, a correction must be made for the ever-present water vapor; therefore, the formula now becomes: V1/V2 = (P247 mm Hg)/(P146 mm Hg) (Fig. 3-3). Watervapor pressure at body temperature is 47 mm Hg. Such characteristics applied to the body explain The expansion of gases trapped within such moist areas as the middle ears, sinuses, stomach, and intestines. These are all actual or potential cavities within which moist air is present and can become trapped and expand like any other gas; hence, the physiological topic of trapped gases, which will be discussed in Chapter 5 regarding altitude physiology.

Charles Law Charles Law states that the volume of gas is directly proportional to the temperature (pressure remaining constant). This applies to all gases. This law has no direct physiological significance because body temperature remains fairly constant. It does, however, explain the fact that pressure within supplemental oxygen containers will decrease if the ambient temperature surrounding the storage container decreases, even when no oxygen has been used, such as at altitude. Daltons Law Since the atmosphere is a mixture of gases, and each gas has its own pressure at any given temperature within a given volume, it is important to also be familiar with the physics of the combined pressures. Daltons Law states that the total pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of the individual pressure (also called partial pressure) that each gas would exert if it alone occupied the whole volume. Figure 3-3 The effect of water on gas expansion. Or expressed mathematically: PT = P1 + P2 + Ps + Pn; where PT is the total pressure of the mixture of gases and the P value is the partial pressure of each gas, which is determined by multiplying the percentage of the individual gas times the total pressure.

Physiological Divisions Of The Atmosphere

Physical Divisions of the Atmosphere

1200 miles
EXOSPHERE

600 miles
IONOSPHERE

50 miles
STRATOSPHERE

Tropopause
TROPOSPHERE
MOUNT EVEREST 29,028 FEET
Sea level to flight level 300 600 depending on temperature, latitude and season.

Physiological Zones of the Atmosphere

63,000 ft

SPACE EQUIVALENT ZONE: 50,000 feet and above

DEFICIENT ZONE: 10,000 to 50,000 feet

18,000 ft

EFFICIENT ZONE: Sea level to 10,000 feet

Composition of the Air

78 Percent Nitrogen N2 21 Percent Oxygen 1 Percent Other
.03 percent CO2

Hypoxia Hyperventilation Pressure effect changes Trapped Gas Disorders

Evolved-Gas Disorders
Visions
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GENERAL EFFECTS ON THE HUMAN BODY

Altitude Physiology

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The physiology of oxygen in the body 50 Review of respiration physiology 51 Carbon monoxide and ozone 67 Decompression of cabin altitude 68 Trapped gases 70 Evolved gas disorders 75

Hypoxia Hyperventilation Pressure effect changes Trapped Gas Disorders Evolved-Gas Disorders Visions Gravity Force G

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Contents
Types of Hypoxia Causes of Hypoxia Effect of Hypoxia Overcoming Hypoxia

Hypoxia
State of oxygen [O2] deficiency in the blood cells and tissues sufficient to cause impairment of function.

Types of Hypoxia
Hypemic Stagnant Histotoxic Hypoxic

Hypoxic Hypoxia
A deficiency in Alveolar oxygen exchange Reduced pO2 in the lungs (high altitude)

Red blood cells

Body tissue

Hypoxic hypoxia
Hypoxic hypoxia occurs when not enough oxygen is in the air or when decreasing atmospheric pressures prevent the diffusion of O2 from the lungs to the bloodstream.

Aviation personnel are most likely to encounter this type at altitude. It is due to the reduction of the O2 at high altitudes

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Hypemic Hypoxia
+ + + + + + + + + +

An oxygen deficiency due to reduction in the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood

Hypaemic, or anaemic,
Hypaemic, or anaemic, hypoxia is caused by a reduction in the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. Anaemia and blood loss are the most common causes of this type. Carbon monoxide, nitrites, and sulpha drugs also cause this hypoxia by forming compounds with haemoglobin and reducing the haemoglobin that is available to combine with oxygen.

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Adequate oxygen

Stagnant Hypoxia
Reduced blood flow
Red blood cells not replenishing tissue needs fast enough

Blood moving slowly

stagnant hypoxia
In stagnant hypoxia, the oxygen-carrying capacity of
the blood is adequate but, circulation is inadequate.
Such conditions as heart failure, arterial spasm, and occlusion of a blood vessel predispose the individual to stagnant hypoxia. More often, when a crew member experiences extreme gravitational forces, disrupting blood flow and causing the blood to stagnate.

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Histotoxic Hypoxia
Adequate oxygen

Inability of the cell to accept or use oxygen

Red blood cells retain oxygen

Poisoned tissue

 This type results when there is interference with the use of O2 by body tissues. Alcohol, narcotics, and certain poisonssuch as cyanideinterfere with the cells ability to use an adequate supply of oxygen.

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Hypoxia Symptoms what you feel (subjective) Air hunger

Apprehension Fatigue Euphoria Belligerence

Hot & Cold Flashes

Nausea
Headache Dizziness Denial

Blurred Vision
Numbness Tingling

 Symptoms vary from one person to another and, therefore, are subjective. Aviation personnel commonly experience mild hypoxia at altitudes at or above 10,000 feet.

Those who fly must be able to recognize the possible signs and symptoms because the onset of hypoxia is subtle and produces a false sense of well-being. Crew members are often engrossed in flight activities and do not readily notice the symptoms of hypoxia.
However, most individuals experience two or three unmistakable symptoms or signs that cannot be overlooked.

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Susceptibility to hypoxia varies with individuals Several factors determine individual susceptibility
1.

O2 Deficiency - Onset Time and Severity

The onset time and severity of hypoxia vary with the amount of oxygen deficiency. Crew members must be able to recognize hypoxia and immediately determine the cause.

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2. Self-Imposed Stress
Self-imposed stressors, such as tobacco and alcohol, increase the physiological altitude. Physiological Altitude
An individuals physiological altitude, the altitude that the body feels, is as important as the true altitude of a flight.

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3. Smoking
The haemoglobin molecules of RBCs have a 200- to 300-times greater affinity for carbon monoxide than for oxygen Cigarette smoking significantly increases the amount of CO carried by the haemoglobin of RBCs; thus, it reduces the capacity of the blood to combine with oxygen
Smoking 3 cigarettes in rapid succession or 20 to 30 cigarettes within 24 hours before a flight may saturate from 8 to 10 percent of the haemoglobin in the blood.
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4. Alcohol. Alcohol creates histotoxic hypoxia. For example, an individual who has consumed 1 ounce of alcohol may have a physiological altitude of 2,000 feet 5. Individual Factors Metabolic rate, diet, nutrition, and emotions greatly influence an individuals susceptibility to hypoxia.

6. Ascent Rate (Climb Rate) Rapid climb rates affect the individuals susceptibility to hypoxia. High altitudes can be reached before the crew member notices serious symptoms.
7. Exposure Duration The effects of exposure to altitude relate directly to an individuals length of exposure. Usually, the longer the exposure, the more detrimental the effects. At higher the altitude, the shorter the exposure time required before symptoms of hypoxia occur.
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8. Ambient Temperature

Extremes in temperature usually increase the metabolic rate of the body. A temperature change increases the individuals oxygen requirements while decreasing the tolerance of the body to hypoxia. With these conditions, hypoxia may develop at lower altitudes than usual.

9. Physical Activity

When physical activity increases, the body demands a greater amount of oxygen. This increased oxygen demand hypxia to take effect faster
An individual who is physically conditioned will normally have a higher tolerance to altitude problems than one who is not. Physical fitness raises an individuals tolerance ceiling.

10. Physical Fitness

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In aviation, the most important effects of hypoxia are those related, either directly or indirectly, to the nervous system Nerve tissue has a heavy requirement for oxygen. Brain tissue is one of the first areas affected by an oxygen deficiency A prolonged or severe lack of oxygen destroys brain cells. The expected performance time is from the interruption of the oxygen supply until the crew member loses the ability to take corrective action.

Aviators Performance Time VS Height

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 An understanding of the causes and types of hypoxia assists in its prevention. Hypoxic (altitude) hypoxia is the type most often encountered in aviation. The other three types (hypaemic, stagnant, and histotoxic) may also present danger to aviators.

Hypoxic hypoxia can be prevented by ensuring that sufficient oxygen is available to maintain an alveolar partial pressure of oxygen between 60 and 100 mm/Hg.
Preventive measures include:

Limiting the time at altitude. Using supplemental oxygen. Pressurizing the cabin.

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 Hyperventilation
Cyanosis

Hypoxia Signs what we see in you (objective)

Mental confusion Poor Judgment Lack of muscle coordination

Stages of Hypoxia
Indifferent Stage Compensatory Stage Disturbance Stage Critical Stage

Indifferent Stage
Altitudes:
Air: 100% O2: 0 - 10,000 feet 34,000 - 39,000 feet

Symptoms: decrease in night vision @ 4000 feet

acuity color perception

Compensatory Stage
Altitudes: Air: 10,000 15,000 feet 100% O2: 39,000 - 42,000 feet Symptoms: impaired efficiency, drowsiness, poor judgment and decreased coordination

CAUTION!!!!
Failure to recognize your signs and symptoms may result in an aircraft mishap.

Disturbance Stage
Altitudes Air: 15,000 20,000 FEET 44,800 FEET

100% O2: 42,000 -

Disturbance Stage
symptoms

Memory Judgment Reliability Understanding

Coordination Flight Control Speech Handwriting

Time of Oxygen 1 Minute 2 Minutes 3 Minutes 4 Minutes 5 Minutes 6 Minutes

Put Back on Oxygen

Disturbance Stage
Signs
Hyperventilation Cyanosis

Critical Stage
Altitudes
Air: 20,000 feet and above 100% O2: 44,800 feet and above Signs: loss of consciousness, convulsions and death

Factors modifying hypoxia symptoms

Pressure altitude Physical activity

Rate of ascent
Time at altitude Temperature

Individual factors
Physical fitness Self-imposed stresses

DEATH
Drugs Exhaustion Alcohol Tobacco Hypoglycemia
keep self imposed stresses out of the aircraft

ALCOHOL

Expected performance time for a crew member flying in a pressurized cabin is reduced approximately one-half following loss of pressurization such as in a:

RD
Rapid Decompression

Expected Performance Times

FL 430 & above
FL 400 FL 350 FL 300 FL 280 FL 250 FL 220

9-12
15 - 20 30 - 60 1-2 2 1/2 - 3 3-5 8 - 10

seconds
seconds seconds minutes minutes minutes minutes

FL 180

20 - 30

minutes

Hypoxia
Prevention
Limit time at altitude 100% O2

Hypoxia
Treatment
100% O2 Descend to a safe altitude

 Individuals who exhibit signs and symptoms of hypoxia must be treated immediately. Treatment consists of giving the individual 100 percent oxygen. If oxygen is not available, descent to an altitude below 10,000 feet is mandatory.

When symptoms persist, the type and cause of the hypoxia must be determined and treatment administered accordingly.
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