Databases Management Web Programming Computer Graphics
A database is a structured collection of data The term database is correctly applied to the data and their supporting data structures, and not to the database management system (DBMS). The database data collection with DBMS is called a database system.
Well known DBMSs include
Oracle FoxPro IBM DB2 Linter Microsoft Access Microsoft SQL Server MySQL PostgreSQL and SQLite.
Database concept
The database concept has evolved since the 1960s
to ease increasing difficulties in designing, building, and maintaining complex information systems (typically with many concurrent endusers, and with a large amount of diverse data). Though the terms database and DBMS define different entities, they are inseparable: a database's properties are determined by its supporting DBMS.
Evolution of database and DBMS technology
The introduction of the term database coincided with the
availability of direct-access storage (disks and drums) from the mid-1960s onwards The term represented a contrast with the tape-based systems of the past, allowing shared interactive use rather than daily batch processing. In the period since the 1970s database technology has kept pace with the increasing resources becoming available from the computing platform: notably the rapid increase in affordable capacity and speed of disk storage, and of main memory. This has enabled ever larger databases and higher throughput to be achieved.
Active database Cloud database Data warehouse Distributed database Document-oriented database Embedded database
Early data models
Hierarchical model Network model
Inverted file model
Relational model Object model
Database languages are dedicated programming languages, tailored and utilized to
define a database (i.e., its specific data types and
the relationships among them), manipulate its content (e.g., insert new data occurrences, and update or delete existing ones), and query it (i.e., request information: compute and retrieve any information based on its data).
The external level defines how each end-user type understands the organization of its respective relevant data in the database, i.e., the different needed end-user views. A single database can have any number of views at the external level. The conceptual level unifies the various external views into a coherent whole, global view. It provides the common-denominator of all the external views. It comprises all the end-user needed generic data, i.e., all the data from which any view may be derived/computed. It is provided in the simplest possible way of such generic data, and comprises the back-bone of the database. It is out of the scope of the various database end-users, and serves database application developers and defined by database administrators that build the database. The internal level (or physical level) is as a matter of fact part of the database implementation inside a DBMS (see Implementation section below). It is concerned with cost, performance, scalability and other operational matters. It deals with storage layout of the conceptual level, provides supporting storage-structures like indexes, to enhance performance, and occasionally stores data of individual views (materialized views), computed from generic data, if performance justification exists for such redundancy. It balances all the external views' performance requirements, possibly conflicting, in attempt to optimize the overall database usage by all its end-uses according to the database goals and priorities.
Access control Data security Database audit
Every database transaction obeys the following rules:
Atomicity
Consistency
Isolation Durability
Programming is the intricate art of telling a computer what to do. Programming allows you to make new software and have the computer do new things. Web site programming is the same except you write applications or web pages that are used by a web browser.
HTML is written in the form of HTML elements consisting of tags enclosed in angle brackets (like <html>), within the web page content. HTML tags most commonly come in pairs like <h1> and </h1>
Unpaired Tags e.g. <img> , <hr> , <br> ,
It is simply a method or protocol (a very old one) for interfacing external applications with servers The NCSA describes CGI as follows:
A plain HTML document that the Web daemon
retrieves is static, which means it exists in a constant state: a text file that doesn't change. A CGI program, on the other hand, is executed in real-time, so that it can output dynamic information.
A CGI application can be written in almost any programming language but most commonly Perl is used.
Once the program is written it needs to be put in a special folder
where external programs, like your web browser, can access it. It will carry out its action, like getting information from a database, and then return information back to your browser.
CGI is supported on almost any platform, Windows or Linux variants
CGI can be used for managing email, connecting to other web sites or servers, processing form information, storing information in a database, creating cookies in a web browser, and just about anything else.
The following CGI program shows all the environment variables passed by the web server:
Perl borrows features from other programming languages including C, shell scripting (sh), AWK, and sed.
The language provides powerful text processing facilities
In addition to CGI, Perl is used for
without the arbitrary data-length limits of many contemporary Unix tools, facilitating easy manipulation of text files. Perl gained widespread popularity in the late 1990s as a CGI scripting language, in part due to its parsing abilities. graphics programming system administration network programming Finance bioinformatics and other applications.
use 5.010; say "Hello World!";
In older versions of Perl, one would write the Hello World program as: print "Hello World!\n"; In later versions, which support the say statement, one can also write it as: use 5.010; say "Hello World!"; Good Perl practices require more complex programs to add the use strict; and use warnings; pragmas, leading into something like:
use strict; use warnings;
print "Hello World!\n"; $ perl -i.bak -lp -e 's/Bob/Robert/g' *.txt
Here is a more complex Perl program, that counts down the seconds up to a given threshold:
#!/usr/bin/perl use strict; use warnings; my ( $remaining, $total ); $remaining = $total = shift(@ARGV); STDOUT->autoflush(1); while ( $remaining ) { printf ( "Remaining %s/%s \r", $remaining--, $total ); sleep 1; } print "\n";
The user interface, in the industrial design field of humanmachine interaction, is the space where interaction between humans and machines occurs. The goal of interaction between a human and a machine at the user interface is effective operation and control of the machine, and feedback from the machine which aids the operator in making operational decisions.
Examples of this broad concept of user interfaces include
the interactive aspects of computer operating systems, hand tools, heavy machinery operator controls, and process controls. The design considerations applicable when creating user interfaces are related to or involve such disciplines as ergonomics and psychology.
A user interface is the system by which people (users) interact with a machine. The user interface includes hardware (physical) and software (logical) components. User interfaces exist for various systems, and provide a means of:
Input, allowing the users to manipulate a system
Output, allowing the system to indicate the
effects of the users' manipulation
Direct manipulation interface is the name of a general class of user interfaces that allow users to manipulate objects presented to them, using actions that correspond at least loosely to the physical world.
Currently (as of 2009) the following types of user interface are the most common: Graphical user interfaces (GUI) accept input via devices such as computer keyboard and mouse and provide articulated graphical output on the computer monitor.
There are at least two different principles widely used in GUI design: Object-oriented user interfaces (OOUIs) and application oriented interfaces.
Web-based user interfaces or web user interfaces (WUI) that accept input
and provide output by generating web pages which are transmitted via the Internet and viewed by the user using a web browser program. Newer implementations utilize Java, AJAX, Adobe Flex, Microsoft .NET, or similar technologies to provide real-time control in a separate program, eliminating the need to refresh a traditional HTML based web browser.
Administrative web interfaces for web-servers, servers and networked computers are often called control panels.
Touchscreens are displays that accept input by touch of fingers or a stylus.
Used in a growing amount of mobile devices and many types of point of sale, industrial processes and machines, self-service machines etc.
a web site as the Front Office or Showroom software and the web application as the Back Office software. Other people may use Front End and Back End.
The front office is where visitors come in to browse and sometimes
make a purchase. The back office is there to provide support services for the front office, such as processing customer orders and maintaining, issuing and replenishing inventory. While the front office is open to anyone, access to the back office is restricted to authorised personnel only. While the front office software is web only, the back office software can be either desktop or web, or a mixture of the two.
It is possible for a web site (front end) to have a companion web application (back end), as shown in the following diagram:
