ENE L2FTF IE LD THEO RY

REFERENCES
1. M.N. Sadiku: Elements of Electromagnetics, Oxford University
Press, 1995, ISBN 0-19-510368-8.
2. N.N. Rao: Elements of Engineering Electromagnetics, Prectice-
Hall, 1991, ISBN:0-13-251604-7.
3. P. Lorrain, D. Corson: Electromagnetic Fields and Waves, W.H.
Freeman & Co, 1970, ISBN: 0-7167-0330-0.
4. David T. Thomas: Engineering Electromagnetics, Pergamon
Press, ISBN: 08-016778-0.

Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 1

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■ VECTOR ALGEBRA
■ Electromagnetics deals with the study of electric and magnetic
fields. Therefore one needs to understand the concepts of a field.
■ Electric and Magnetic Fields are vector quantities and their
behaviour is governed by a set of laws known as Maxwell’s
equations.
■ The mathematical formulation of Maxwell’s equations and their
subsequent application require the understanding of the basic
rules pertinent to mathematical manipulations involving vector
quantities.
■ We first introduce simple rules of vector algebra without the
manipulation of the coordinate system; thereafter, we introduce the
Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical coordinate systems.
■ After introducing the vector algebraic rules, we introduce the
concepts of scalar and vector fields, static as well as time-varying.
Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 2
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■ VECTOR ALGEBRA
■ In the study of elementary physics, we come across several
quantities such as mass, temperature, velocity, acceleration, force,
and charge.
■ Some of these quantities have associated with them not only a
magnitude, but also a direction in space whereas others are
characterized by magnitude only.
■ The former class of quantities are known as vectors, and the latter
class are known as scalars.
■ Mass, temperature, and charge are scalars, whereas velocity,
acceleration, and force are vectors.
■ Other examples are voltage and current for scalars , and electric and
magnetic fields for vectors.

Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 3

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■ VECTOR ALGEBRA
■ Graphically, a vector, A, is represented by a straight line with an arrowhead
pointing in the direction of A and having a length proportional to the
magnitude of A.
■ If the top of the page represents North, then vectors A and B are directed
eastward, with the magnitude of B being twice that of A.
■ Vector C is directed towards the northeast and has a magnitude three times
that of A. Vector D is directed towards the southwest, and has a magnitude
equal to that of C. Thus C and D are equal in magnitude but opposite in
phase.

A
C
D
B

Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 4

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■ VECTOR ALGEBRA - THE UNIT VECTOR
■ Since a vector may have, in general, an arbitrary orientation in three-
dimensional space, we need to define a set of three reference
directions at each and every point in space in terms of which we can
describe vectors drawn at that point.
■ Thus if we define three mutually orthogonal reference directions as
shown below, and direct unit vectors along the three directions as
shown, where a unit vector has magnitude of unity.

i3

Set of three orthogonal unit

i2 vectors in a right-handed
coordinate system.
i1

Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 5

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■ VECTOR ALGEBRA
■ A vector of magnitude different from unity along any reference
directions can be represented in terms of the unit vector along
that direction.
■ Thus 4i1 represents a vector of magnitude 4 units in the direction of i1,
6i2 represents a vector of magnitude 6 units in the direction of i2, and
-2i3 represents a vector of magnitude 2 units in the direction opposite
to that of i3.
■ Thus we define vector A asthe sum of 4i1+6i2. That is:
A = 4iˆ1 + 6iˆ2

■  A is 2given
The magnitude of vector by:
A = 4 + 6 2 = 7.211

Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 6

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■ VECTOR ALGEBRA
■ If vector B is defined as:

B = 4iˆ1 + 6iˆ2 − 2i3

■ then the magnitude of B is:


B = 4iˆ1 + 6iˆ2 − 2i3 = 4 2 + 6 2 + 2 2 = 7.4833

■ In general, a vector A is said to have components A1, A2, and A3

along the directions 1, 2, and 3 is written as:

A = A1iˆ1 + A2iˆ2 + A3i3

■ Now consider three

 vectors A,B, and C given by:
A = A1iˆ1 + A2iˆ2 + A3i3

B = B1iˆ1 + B2iˆ2 + B3i3

C = C1iˆ1 + C2iˆ2 + C3i3
Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 7
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■ VECTOR ALGEBRA - Vector Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication
■ Then the sum of vectors A and B, (A+B), is given by:
 
A + B = ( A1iˆ1 + A2iˆ2 + A3i3 ) + ( B1iˆ1 + B2iˆ2 + B3i3 )
= ( A1 + B1 ) iˆ1 + ( A2 + B2 ) iˆ2 + ( A3 + B3 ) iˆ3
■ Vector subtraction is a special case of vector addition; thus:
 
B − C = ( B1iˆ1 + B2iˆ2 + B3i3 ) − ( C1iˆ1 + C2iˆ2 + C3i3 )
= ( B1 − C1 ) iˆ1 + ( B2 − C2 ) iˆ2 + ( B3 − C3 ) iˆ3

■ The multiplication of a vector, A, by a scalar m, is the same as

repeated addition of the vector:

mA = m( A1iˆ1 + A2iˆ2 + A3i3 )
= mA1iˆ1 + mA2iˆ2 + mA3i3

Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 8

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■ VECTOR ALGEBRA
■ The magnitude of vector A is given by:

A = A1iˆ1 + A2iˆ2 + A3i3 = A12 + A22 + A32

■ The unit vector along A , iA, has a magnitude equal to unity, but its
direction is the same as that of A. Thus:

A A1 A2 A3
i A = = i1 + i2 +  i3
  
A A A A

■ Two vectors A and B are equal if and only if the corresponding

components of A and B are equal. That is:
 
A = B ⇒ A1iˆ1 + A2iˆ2 + A3i3 = B1iˆ1 + B2iˆ2 + B3i3 ;
■
∴ A1 = B1 ; A2 = B2 ; A3 = B3

Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 9

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■ VECTOR ALGEBRA - SCALAR OR DOT PRODUCT
■ The scalar or dot product of two vectors A and B is a scalar quantity defined
as: 
     A.B
A.B = A B cosα ⇒ α = cos −1    
 AB
 
■ Here α is the angle between A and B. For mutually orthogonal unit vectors i1,
i2, and i3, we have:
i1.i1 = 1; i1.i2 = 0; i1.i3 = 0
i2 .i1 = 0; i2 .i2 = 1; i2 .i3 = 0
i3 .i1 = 0; i3 .i2 = 0; i3 .i3 = 1

Thus we have

 the dot product between A and B as:
A.B = ( A1iˆ1 + A2iˆ2 + A3i3 ).( B1iˆ1 + B2iˆ2 + B3i3 )
■

= A1iˆ1 . B1iˆ1 + A1iˆ1 . B2iˆ2 + A1iˆ1 . B3iˆ3 + A2iˆ2 . B1iˆ1 + A2iˆ2 . B2iˆ2 + A2iˆ2 . B3iˆ3
+ A3iˆ3 . B1iˆ1 + A3iˆ3 . B2iˆ2 + A3iˆ3 . B3iˆ3
= ( A1 B1 ) + ( A2 B2 ) + ( A3 B3 )
Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 10
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■ VECTOR ALGEBRA - VECTOR OR CROSS PRODUCT
■ The vector or cross product of two vectors, A and B, is a vector quantity
whose magnitude is equal to the product of the magnitudes of A and B
and the sine of the smaller angle α between A and B whose direction is
normal to the plane containing A and B.
   
AxB = A B sin αiˆN
■ For mutually orthogonal unit vectors i1, i2, and i3, we have:
i1 xi1 = 0; i1 xi2 = i3 ; i1 xi3 = −i2
i2 xi1 = −i3 ; i2 xi2 = 0; i2 xi3 = i1
i3 xi1 = i2 ; i3 xi2 = −i1; i3 xi3 = 0

■ Note that the cross-product is not commutative, and also the distributive
property holds for the cross product:
     
BxA = B A sin α ( − iN ) = − AxB
      
Ax ( B + C ) = AxB + AxC
Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 11
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■ VECTOR ALGEBRA - VECTOR OR CROSS PRODUCT
■ Using the above properties, we obtain:
 
AxB = ( A1iˆ1 + A2iˆ2 + A3i3 ) x( B1iˆ1 + B2iˆ2 + B3i3 )
= A1iˆ1 xB1iˆ1 + A1iˆ1 xB2iˆ2 + A1iˆ1 xB3iˆ3 + A2iˆ2 xB1iˆ1 + A2iˆ2 xB2iˆ2 + A2iˆ2 xB3iˆ3
+A3iˆ3 xB1iˆ1 + A3iˆ3 xB2iˆ2 + A3iˆ3 xB3iˆ3
= A1 B2iˆ3 − A1 B3iˆ2 − A2 B1iˆ3 + A2 B3iˆ1 + A3 B1iˆ2 − A3 B2iˆ1
= ( A2 B3 − A3 B2 ) + ( A3 B1 − A1B3 ) + ( A1B2 − A2 B1 )
■ This can be expressed in determinant form in the manner:
iˆ1 iˆ2 iˆ3
 
AxB = A1 A2 A3
B1 B2 B3
■ The cross product is useful in obtaining the unit vector normal to the
plane containing the two vectors A and B:
AxB
iN =  
AxB
Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 12
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■ VECTOR ALGEBRA - TRIPLE PRODUCTS
■ The scalar triple product involves three vectors in a dot product operation
and a cross product operation, such as, A.BxC.
■ It is not necessary to include parentheses since this quantity can be
evaluated in only one manner - by evaluating BxC first, and then dotting the
resulting vector with A.
■ We therefore have,
iˆ1 iˆ2 iˆ3
 
A.BxC = ( A1iˆ1 + A2iˆ2 + A3iˆ3 ). B1 B2 B3
C1 C2 C3
A1 A2 A3
 
⇒ A.BxC = B1 B2 B3
C1 C2 C3
■ Since the value of the determinant on the right side remains unchanged if the
rows are interchanged in a cylindrical manner, we have
     
A.BxC = B.CxA = C. AxB
Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 13
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■ VECTOR ALGEBRA - TRIPLE PRODUCTS
■ The triple cross product involves three vectors in two cross product
operations.
■ Caution must however be exercised in evaluating a triple cross
product since the order of evaluation is important; that is:
     
Ax ( BxC ) ≠ ( AxB ) xC

■ As an example, let us equate the three vectors to unit vectors as

follows:
  
A = i1 ; B = i1 ; C = iˆ2
ˆ ˆ
  
⇒ Ax( BxC ) = iˆ1 x( iˆ1 xiˆ2 ) = iˆ1 xiˆ3 = −iˆ2
  
( AxB ) xC = ( iˆ1 xiˆ1 ) xiˆ2 = 0 xiˆ2 = 0
■ Therefore in a vector triple product, the parentheses are so important
and must be included.
Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 14
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■ CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM
■ So far, we have expressed a vector at a point in space in terms of its
component vectors along a set of three mutually orthogonal directions
defined by three mutually orthogonal unit vectors at that point.
■ However, in order to relate vectors at one point in space to vectors at
another point in space, we must define the set of three reference
directions at each and every point in space. Thus we need a
coordinate system.
■ Although there are several different coordinate systems, we are
normally concerned with only three of these, namely, the Cartesian,
cylindrical, and spherical coordinate systems.
■ The Cartesian coordinate system, also known as the rectangular
coordinate system, is the simplest of the three since it permits the
geometry to be simple, yet sufficient to study many of the elements of
engineering electromagnetics.

Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 15

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■ CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM
■ The Cartesian coordinate system is defined by a set of three
mutually orthogonal vectors, x,y, and z, as shown below.

i3=z

i2=y
i1=x
■ The coordinate axes are denoted as the x-, y-, and z-axes.
■ The directions in which values of x, y, and z increase along the
respective coordinate axes are indicated by the arrowheads.
■ Note that the positive x-, y-, and z-directions are chosen such that
they form a right-handed system.
Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 16
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■ CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM
■ Therefore we have:

iˆ1 = xˆ; iˆ2 = yˆ ; iˆ3 = zˆ

■ For a right-handed coordinate system, we have:

xˆxyˆ = zˆ; yˆ xzˆ = xˆ; zˆxxˆ = yˆ

■ Consider two points, P1(x1,y1,z1), and P2 (x2,y2,z2) in the rectangular

coordinate system. The position vector, r1, drawn from the origin to pint
P1 and position vector r2 drawn from the origin to P2 are given by:
r1 = x1 xˆ + y1 yˆ + z1 zˆ

r2 = x2 xˆ + y2 yˆ + z 2 zˆ
■ The resultantvector, R12, is given by:
 
R12 = r2 − r1 = ( x2 − x1 ) xˆ + ( y2 − y1 ) yˆ + ( z 2 − z1 ) zˆ

Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 17

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■ CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM

P1(x1,y1,z1)
R12
z P2(x2,y2,z2)

r1
r2

y
x
■ We can obtain the unit vector along the line drawn from P1 to P2 to be:

R ( x2 − x1 ) xˆ + ( y2 − y1 ) yˆ + ( z2 − z1 ) zˆ
iˆ12 = 12 =
R12 [ ]
( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y2 − y1 ) 2 + ( z2 − z1 ) 2
1/ 2

■ As an example, if P1 is (1,-2,0) and P2 is (4,2,5), then:

Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 18
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■ CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM

R12 = 3 xˆ + 4 yˆ + 5 zˆ
1
iˆ12 = ( 3xˆ + 4 yˆ + 5 zˆ )
5 2

■ In our study of electromagnetic fields, we have to work with line,

surface, and volume integrals.
■ These involve differential lengths, surfaces, and volumes obtained by
incrementing the coordinates by infinitesimal amounts.
■ Since in the Cartesian coordinate system the three coordinates
represent lengths, the differential length elements obtained by
incrementing one coordinate at a time, keeping the other two
constant, are, for the x-, y-, and z-coordinates respectively:
dxxˆ , dyyˆ , and dzzˆ

Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 19

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■ DIFFERENTIAL LENGTH VECTOR
P(x,y,z)
dl
z Q(x+dx,y+dy,z+dz)

r1
r2

x
■ The differential length vector, dl, is the vector drawn from a point P(x,y,z)
to a neighboring point Q(x+dx,y+dy,z+dz) obtained by incrementing the
coordinates of P by infinitesimal amounts.
■ Thus it is the vector sum of the three differential elements as follows:

dl = dxxˆ + dyyˆ + dzzˆ

Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 20

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■ DIFFERENTIAL LENGTH VECTOR
■ The differential lengths, dx, dy, and dz are, however, not independent
of each other since in the evaluation of line integrals, the integration
is performed along a specified path on which the points P and Q lie.
■ As an example, consider the curve
x = y = z2

■ Let us obtain the expression for the differential length vector dl along
the curve at the point (1,1,1) and having the projection dz on the z
axis. Then:
dx = dy = 2 zdz

∴ dl = dxxˆ + dyyˆ + dzzˆ

dl = 2dzxˆ + 2dzyˆ + dzzˆ = ( 2 xˆ + 2 yˆ + zˆ ) dz

■ Note that x=1, y=1, z=1.

Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 21
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■ DIFFERENTIAL LENGTH VECTOR
■ Differential length vectors are useful for finding the unit vector normal
to a surface at a point on that surface.
■ This is done by considering two differential length vectors at the point
under consideration and tangential to the two curves on the surface
then using the cross-product operation, which gives a vector that is
normal to the crossed vectors.
dl2

dl1
Curve 1

Curve 2
Surface

■ Thus the unit vector normal to thesurface

 is given by:
dl xdl
iˆn = 1 2
dl1 xdl2
Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 22
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■ DIFFERENTIAL SURFACE VECTOR
■ Two differential length vectors, dl1 and dl2 originating at a point define
a differential surface whose area dS is that of the parallelogram having
dl1 and dl2 as two of its adjacent sides, as shown below:

in
dl2
dS
α
dl1
■ From simple geometry and the definition of cross-product of two
vectors, it can be seen that:
 
dS = dl1dl2 sin α = dl1 xdl2

Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 23

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■ DIFFERENTIAL SURFACE VECTOR
■ In the evaluation of surface integrals, it is convenient to define a
differential surface vector dS whose magnitude is the area dS and
whose direction is normal to the differential surface.
■ Thus recognizing that the normal vector can be directed to either side
of the surface, we have:
  
dS = ± dl1 xdl2 = ± dSiˆn

■ If we apply these equations to differential surface vectors in Cartesian

coordinates, we obtain:
For plane x = cons tan t : ± dyyˆ xdzzˆ = ± dydzxˆ
For plane y = cons tan t : ± dzzˆxdxxˆ = ± dzdxyˆ
For plane z = cons tan t : ± dxxˆxdyyˆ = ± dxdyzˆ

Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 24

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■ DIFFERENTIAL VOLUME
■ Three different length vectors, dl1, dl2, and dl3 originating at a point
define a differential volume dv which is that of the parallelepiped having
dl1, dl2, and dl3 as three of its contiguous edges, as shown below.

dv
dl3
dl2
dl1
■ It can be seen that:
dv = (base area of parallelepiped ).(height of parallelepiped )
  
     dl3 .dl1 xdl2   
ˆ
= dl1 xdl2 dl3 .in = dl1 xdl2   = dl3 .dl1 xdl2
dl1 xdl2
  
⇒ dv = dl1.dl2 xdl3
Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 25
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■ CYLINDRICAL COORDINATE SYSTEM
■ Just like the Cartesian coordinate system is defined by a set of three
mutually orthogonal surfaces, the cylindrical coordinate system also
involves a set of three mutually orthogonal surfaces.

P(r,φ,z)

y
φ r

x
■ For the cylindrical coordinate system, the three one of the planes is
z=constant
Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 26
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■ CYLINDRICAL COORDINATE SYSTEM
■ One of these planes is the same as the z=constant plane in the
Cartesian coordinate system.
■ The second plane contains the z-axis and makes an angle φ with a
reference plane, chosen to be the x-z plane of the Cartesian
coordinate system. This plane is called the φ=constant plane.
■ The cylindrical coordinate system has the z-axis as its axis. But since
the radial distance r from the z-axis to points on the cylindrical surface
is constant, this surface is defined by r=constant.
■ Thus the three orthogonal surfaces defining the cylindrical coordinate
system are: r=constant; φ=constant; and z=constant.
■ Only two of the coordinates (r and z) are distances; the third coordinate
(φ) is an angle.
■ We note that the entire space is spanned by varying r from 0 to ∞; z
from -∞ to +∞; and φ from 0 to 2π.

Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 27

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■ CYLINDRICAL COORDINATE SYSTEM
z Q
dz
P

x dφ
φ
r
dr
■ To obtain the expressions for the differential lengths, surfaces, and
volumes in the cylindrical coordinate system, we now consider two
points, P(r,φ,z) and Q(r+dr, φ+dφ, and z+dz) where Q is obtained by
incrementing infinitesimally each coordinate from its value at P.
■ The three orthogonal surfaces intersecting at P, and the three
orthogonal surfaces intersecting at Q, define a box which can be
considered to be rectangular since dr,dφ, and dz are infinitesimal.

Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 28

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■ CYLINDRICAL COORDINATE SYSTEM
■ The three differential length elements forming the contiguous sides of
the box are: drrˆ, rdφφˆ, dzzˆ
■ The differential length vector dl from P to Q is thus given by:

dl = drrˆ + rdφφˆ + dzzˆ

■ The differential surface vectors defined by the pairs of the differential

length elements are:
rdφφˆxdzzˆ = rdφdzrˆ;
dzzˆxdrrˆ = drdzφˆ;
drrˆxrdφφˆ = rdrdφzˆ
■ Finally, the differential volume dv is the volume of the box:
dv = ( dr )( rdφ )( dz ) = rdrdφdz

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■ SPHERICAL COORDINATE SYSTEM
■ For the spherical coordinate system, the three mutually orthogonal
surfaces are a sphere, a cone, and a plane.
z
r
θ
y
x φ

■ The three orthogonal surfaces defining the spherical coordinates of a

point are:
r = cons tan t
θ = cons tan t
φ = cons tan t
Vector Calculus ENEL2FT Field Theory 30
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■ SPHERICAL COORDINATE SYSTEM
■ The differential length elements and the differential length vector dl are
given by:
drrˆ, rdθθˆ, r sin θdφφˆ

∴ dl = drrˆ + rdθθˆ + r sin θdφφˆ
■ The differential surface vectors defined by pairs of differential length
elements are:
rdθθˆxr sin θdφφˆ = r 2 sin θdθdφrˆ
r sin θdφφˆxdrrˆ = r sin θdrdφθˆ
drrˆxrdθθˆ = rdrdθφˆ

■ The differential volume formed by the three differential lengths is:

dv = ( dr )( rdθ )( r sin θdφ ) = r 2 sin θdrdθdφ

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■ CONVERSIONS BETWEEN THE COORDINATE SYSTEMS
■ In the study of electromagnetics, it is useful to be able to convert from
one coordinate system to another, particularly from the Cartesian to
the cylindrical system and vice-versa, and from the spherical system to
the Cartesian system and vice-versa.
■ If rc is r in cylindrical coordinate, and rs is the designation of r in
spherical coordinates, then we have the following conversions:

x = rc cos φ ; y = rc sin φ ; z=z

x = rs sin θ cos φ ; y = rs sin θ sin φ z = rs cosθ
φ = tan −1  
y
rc = x 2 + y 2 z=z
 x
 2
−1  x + y 
2 
−1  y 
rs = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 θ = tan   φ = tan  
 z   x

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■ CONVERSIONS BETWEEN THE COORDINATE SYSTEMS
■ Next consider the conversion of vectors from one coordinate system to
another.
■ To do this, we need to express each of the unit vectors of the first
coordinate system in terms of its components along the unit vectors in
the second coordinate system.
■ From the definition of the dot product of two vectors, the component of
a unit vector along another unit vector, that is, the cosine of the angle
between the two unit vectors, is simply the dot product of the two unit
vectors.
■ For the sets of unit vectors in the cylindrical and Cartesian coordinate
systems, we have:
rˆc .xˆ = cos φ rˆc . yˆ = sin φ rˆc .zˆ = 0
φˆ.xˆ = − sin φ φˆ. yˆ = cos φ φˆ.zˆ = 0
zˆ.xˆ = 0 zˆ. yˆ = 0 zˆ.zˆ = 1
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■ CONVERSIONS BETWEEN THE COORDINATE SYSTEMS
■ Similarly, for the set of unit vectors in the spherical and Cartesian
coordinate systems, we obtain the dot products as follows:
rˆs .xˆ = sin θ cos φ rˆs . yˆ = sin θ sin φ rˆs .zˆ = cosθ
θˆ.xˆ = cosθ cos φ θˆ. yˆ = cosθ sin φ θˆ.zˆ = − sin θ
φˆ.xˆ = − sin φ φˆ. yˆ = cos φ φˆ.zˆ = 0

■ Therefore when given a vector in spherical or cylindrical coordinates, it

is possible to convert it into Cartesian coordinates, and vice-versa.
■ This is particularly so when solving electromagnetic radiation
problems.

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■ VECTOR DERIVATIVES AND INTEGRALS
■ For a scalar function, F(t), we have:
dF  F (t + ∆t ) − F (t ) 
= lim  
dt ∆t →0  ∆t

■ Now suppose that F(t) were one component of a vector function, say
Ax. Since each component would be a new scalar function, it follows
that: 
dA dAx dAy dA
= xˆ + yˆ + zˆ z
dt dt dt dt

■ Suppose, instead, we asked for the partial derivative of vector A with

respect to x? This asks for the change in A as we move along the x

direction. This becomes:
∂A ∂Ax ∂Ay ∂A
= xˆ + yˆ + zˆ z
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x

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■ VECTOR DERIVATIVES AND INTEGRALS
■ The definition of a partial derivative is identical to the definition of an
ordinary derivative:
∂F  F ( x + ∆x, y ) − F ( x, y ) 
= lim  
∂x ∆x→0  ∆x
■ The only difference is that the function F(x,y) has now two
independent variables, x and y.
■ Many such functions of two or more independent variables exist. For
example, the height of a point above sea level depends on the position
on the earth and requires two variables, latitudes (x) and longitude (y),
to describe that position.
■ The partial derivative with respect to y is also defined as:
∂F  F ( x, y + ∆y ) − F ( s ) 
= lim  
∂y ∆y →0  ∆y 

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■ DIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVES
■ The partial derivatives of F(x,y) with respect to x and y are both special
cases of a more general derivative, the directional derivative.
■ Consider the same function, F(x,y), but now instead of partial derivative
with respect to x or y, we compute the derivative in a direction s, as
shown below:
y
t
s

θ
x

■ We wish to determine the partial derivative with respect to s:

∂F  F ( s + ∆s ) − F ( s ) 
= lim  
∂s ∆s→0  ∆s
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■ DIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVES
■ The variables s,t, are orthogonal and related to x and y by the
equations:
x = s cosθ − t sin θ
y = s sin θ + t cosθ
■ Also recall the chain rule of differentiation from ordinary calculus:
∂F ∂x ∂F ∂y ∂F
= +
∂s ∂s ∂x ∂s ∂y
■ Looking at the coordinate transformations, we find that:
∂x ∂y
= cosθ ; = sin θ ;
∂s ∂s
∂F ∂F ∂F
∴ = cosθ + sin θ
∂s ∂x ∂y

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■ DIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVES - THE GRADIENT
■ What would be the maximum directional derivative of F(x,y) at the point
(x,y)? This is determined by setting the derivative of the directional
derivative with respect to s equal to zero.
■ This would be denoted by ∇F, the gradient of F, given by:
 ∂F ∂F ∂F
∇F = xˆ + yˆ + zˆ
∂x ∂y ∂z

■ Here the del operator, ∇, is defined as:

 ∂ ∂ ∂
∇ = xˆ + yˆ + zˆ
∂x ∂y ∂z

■ Thus the gradient is a vector operator, with the del operator, ∇,

operating on a scalar, F(x,y,z).

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■ THE DIVERGENCE AND CURL OF A VECTOR
■ Like the dot product of two vectors, the divergence of a vector field is
a scalar function, which, in rectangular coordinates, is given by:
  ∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az
∇. A = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
■ The vector derivative or curl of a vector is defined in rectangular
coordinates as:
   ∂ ∂ ∂
∇xA =  xˆ + yˆ + zˆ  x ( xˆAx + yˆ Ay + zˆAz )
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
xˆ yˆ zˆ
  ∂ ∂ ∂
⇒ ∇xA =
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ax Ay Az

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■ SOME VECTOR IDENTITIES
■ Some useful vector identities are given below:
■ 1. The Laplacian is defined as:
 ∂2F ∂2F ∂2F
∇ F = ∇.∇F = 2 + 2 + 2
2

∂x ∂y ∂z
■ 2. The Curl of the Gradient of a scalar:
 
∇x∇F = 0
■ 3. The divergence of the curl of a vector:
 
∇.∇xA = 0
■ 4. The curl of the curl of a vector:
      
∇x∇xA = ∇( ∇. A) − ∇ A
2

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