Todays lecture is brought to you by
Physics
Man
Not to be confused with
Electro-Man (http://www.thinkgeek.com).
Todays agenda:
Emf, Terminal Voltage, and Internal Resistance.
You must be able to incorporate all of these quantities in your circuit calculations.
Electric Power.
You be able to calculate the electric power dissipated in circuit components, and
incorporate electric power in work-energy problems.
Examples
For you to work through outside of lecture.
In previous lecture (the first capacitors lecture) I suggested
using conservation of energy to show that the voltage drop
across circuit components in series is the sum of the individual
voltage drops:
circuit components in series
C
1
C
2
+
-
C
3
a
b
V
2
V
1
V
ab
V
V
ab
= V = V
1
+ V
2
+ V
3
V
3
In general, the voltage drop across resistors in series (or other
circuit components) is the sum of the individual voltage drops.
circuit components in series
V
ab
= V = V
1
+ V
2
+ V
3
R
3
R
2
R
1
+
-
V
V
1
V
3
V
2
a
b
You may use this in tomorrows homework. It is* on your
starting equations sheet, and is a consequence of conservation
of energy. Use this in combination with Ohms Law, V=IR.
I derived this
in lecture 7.
Heres what your text means by V
ab
:
V
ab
=V
a
-V
b
=V
ba
* EV = 0 around closed loop
R
3
R
2
R
1
+
-
V
V
1
V
3
V
2
a
b
Starting at point a and following the current in a clockwise path
around the circuit and back to point a
- V
1
- V
2
- V
3
+ V = 0
- IR
1
- IR
2
- IR
3
+ V = 0
I
R
3
R
2
R
1
+
-
V
A
V
1
V
3
V
2
a
b
- V
1
- V
2
- V
3
+ V
A
- V
B
= 0
+
-
V
B
Again, starting at point a and following the current in a
clockwise path around the circuit and back to point a
- IR
1
- IR
2
- IR
3
+ V
A
- V
B
= 0
I
5 O
+
-
9 V
a
b
Example: calculate I, V
ab
,
and V
ba
(to be worked at the
blackboard).
I
10 O
5 O
+
-
9 V
a
b
Example: calculate I, V
ab
,
and V
ba
(to be worked at the
blackboard).
I
10 O
+
-
6 V
In Physics 24, whenever you work with currents in circuits, you
should assume (unless told otherwise) direct current.
DC Currents
Current in a dc circuit flows in one direction, from + to -.
We will not encounter ac circuits much in this course.
For any calculations involving household current, which is
ac, assuming dc will be close enough to give you a feel
for the physics.
If you need to learn about ac circuits, youll have courses
devoted to them.
The mathematical analysis is more complex. We have other
things to explore this semester.
We have been making calculations with voltages from batteries
without asking detailed questions about the batteries. Now its
time to look inside the batteries.
We introduce a new term emf in this section.
Any device which transforms a form of energy into electric
energy is called a source of emf.
emf is an abbreviation for electromotive force, but emf is
not a force!
The emf of a source is the voltage it produces when no current
is flowing.
emf, terminal voltage, and internal resistance
The voltage you measure across the terminals of a battery (or
any source of emf) is less than the emf because of internal
resistance.
Heres a battery with an emf. All batteries have an internal
resistance:
+
-
a b
The battery is everything
inside the green box.
Hook up a voltmeter to measure the emf:
+
-
a b
The battery is everything
inside the green box.
Getting ready to connect the
voltmeter (its not hooked up
yet).
emf
emf is the zero-current potential difference
You cant measure voltage without some (however
small) current flowing, so you cant measure emf
directly.
Measuring the emf???
+
-
a b
The battery is everything
inside the green box.
As soon as you connect the
voltmeter, current flows.
You can only measure V
ab
.
I
c (emf)
Homework hint: an ideal voltmeter would be able to measure c.
We model a battery as producing an emf, c, and having an
internal resistance r:
+
-
a b
The battery is everything
inside the green box.
The terminal voltage, V
ab
, is the voltage you measure across
the battery terminals with current flowing. When a current I
flows through the battery, V
ab
is related to the emf, c, by
ab
V = I r .
r c
c
V
ab
Why the sign? If the battery is delivering current, the V it
delivers is less than the emf, so the sign is necessary.
If the battery is being charged, you have to force the current
through the battery, and the V to force the current through is
greater than the emf, so the + sign is necessary.
This will become clear as you work (and understand) problems.
See, for example, Power Input to a Source, page 865 of your
text.
Your text writes and expects you to put the
correct sign (+ or -) on the I. An endangered (about to go
extinct) starting equation is
V = - I r
ab
V = - I r .
Not recommended for use by children
under 6. Do not continue use if you
experience dizziness, shortness of
breath, or trouble sleeping.
So to model a battery, simply include an extra resistor to
represent the internal resistance, and label the voltage source*
as an emf instead of V (units are still volts):
+
-
r c
*Remember, all sources of emfnot just batterieshave an internal resistance.
If the internal resistance is negligible, just dont include it!
Example: a battery is known to have an emf of 9 volts. If a 1
ohm resistor is connected to the battery, the terminal voltage is
measured to be 3 volts. What is the internal resistance of the
battery?
+
-
a b
the voltmeters resistance is so
large that approximately zero
current flows through the voltmeter
emf
terminal voltage V
ab
internal resistance r
R=1 O
I
Because the voltmeter draws
no current, r and R are in
series with a current I flowing
through both.
- Ir - IR=0
IR, the potential drop across
the resistor, is just the
potential difference V
ab
.
ab
V = IR
+
-
a b
emf
R=1 O
I
-Ir - IR= 0
ab
V = IR
Ir = - IR
- IR
r =
I
r = - R
I
ab
V
I =
R
ab
R
r = - R
V
| |
|
\ . ab
r = R - 1
V
( )
| |
O
|
\ .
9
r = 1 - 1 = 3- 1 =2
3
A rather unrealistically large value for
the internal resistance of a 9V battery.
By the way, the experiment described in the previous example
is not a very good idea.
ab
V
I =
R
3
I = = 3A
1
Ill do a demo on this in a bit.
Todays agenda:
Emf, Terminal Voltage, and Internal Resistance.
You must be able to incorporate all of these quantities in your circuit calculations.
Electric Power.
You must be able to calculate the electric power dissipated in circuit components, and
incorporate electric power in work-energy problems.
Examples
For you to work through outside of lecture.
Last semester you defined power in terms of the work done by
a force.
Wed better use the same definition this semester! So we will.
We focus here on the interpretation that power is energy
transformed per time, instead of work by a force per time.
Electric Power
F
F
dW
P
dt
=
energy transformed
P
time
=
The above equation doesnt appear on your equation sheet, but
it should appear in your brain.
However, we begin with the work aspect. We know the work
done by the electric force in moving a charge q through a
potential difference:
The instantaneous power, which is the work per time done by
the electric force, is
i f i f
dW dq V .
= A
i f i f
dW dq V
P .
dt dt
A
= =
The work done by the electric force in moving an infinitesimal
charge dq through a potential difference is:
i f i f i f
W U q V .
= A = A
And one more thing the negative sign means energy is being
lost. So everybody writes
Lets get lazy and drop the A in front of the V, but keep in the
back of our heads the understanding that we are talking about
potential difference. Then
But wait! We defined I = dQ/dt. So
and understands that P<0 means energy out, and P>0 means
energy in.
dW dq
P V.
dt dt
= =
P IV. =
P IV =
Also, using Ohms law V=IR, we can write P = I
2
R = V
2
/R.
I cant believe it, but I got soft and put P = I
2
R = V
2
/R on
your starting equation sheet.
Truth in Advertising II. Your power
company doesnt sell you power. It sells
energy. Energy is power times time, so a
kilowatt-hour (what you buy from your
energy company) is an amount of energy.
Truth in Advertising I. The V in P=IV is a potential
difference, or voltage drop. It is really a AV.
Todays agenda:
Emf, Terminal Voltage, and Internal Resistance.
You must be able to incorporate all of these quantities in your circuit calculations.
Electric Power.
You must be able to calculate the electric power dissipated in circuit components, and
incorporate electric power in work-energy problems.
Examples
For you to work through outside of lecture.
Which example do you want to see worked next?
Not enough time to work them all.
1. An electric heater: power usage and cost.
2. How much energy is a kWh?
3. How much energy did the electric heater use?
4. Charge, current, and power in a lightning bolt.
5. Power input and output in a circuit.
6. Home power use.
Whats the meaning of this assumption about
the current direction?
The current in your household wiring doesnt flow in one
direction, but because we havent talked about current other
than a steady flow of charge, well make the assumption. Our
calculation will be a reasonable approximation to reality.
Example: an electric heater draws 15.0 A on a 120 V line. How
much power does it use and how much does it cost per 30 day
month if it operates 3.0 h per day and the electric company
charges 10.5 cents per kWh. For simplicity assume the current
flows steadily in one direction.
An electric heater draws 15.0 A on a 120 V line. How much
power does it use.
P IV =
( )( )
P 15 A 120 V 1800 W = 1.8 kW = =
How much does it cost per 30 day month if it operates 3.0 h
per day and the electric company charges 10.5 cents per kWh.
( )( )
3 h $0.105
cos t 1.8 kW 30 days
day kWh
| |
| |
=
| |
\ .
\ .
cos t $17.00 =
Back to examples page.
How much energy is a kilowatt hour (kWh)?
So a kWh is a funny unit of energy. K (kilo) and h (hours) are
lowercase, and W (James Watt) is uppercase.
( )( ) ( )( )
1 kW 1 h 1000 W 3600 s =
( )
J
1000 3600 s
s
| |
=
|
\ .
6
= 3.6 10 J
Back to examples page.
How much energy did the electric heater use?
done by force
average
W
Energy Transformed
P
time time
= =
( )
( )
average
Energy Transformed P time =
( )
J 3 h used 3600 s
Energy Transformed 1800 30 days
s day h
| |
| | | |
=
| | |
\ . \ .
\ .
Energy Transformed 583, 200, 000 Joules used =
Energy Transformed 583, 200, 000 Joules used =
Thats a ton of joules! Good bargain for $17. Thats about
34,000,000 joules per dollar (or 0.0000029/joule).
OK, used is not an SI unit, but I stuck it in there to help me
understand. And joules dont come by the ton.
One last quibble. You know from energy conservation that you
dont use up energy. You just transform it from one form to
another.
Back to examples page.
learn about
lightning at
howstuffworks
What kind of a problem is this?
You are given energy transferred, potential difference, time.
You need to calculate charge transferred, current, and average
power. Equations for current and power are obvious:
Example: a typical lightning bolt can
transfer 10
9
J of energy across a
potential difference of perhaps 5x10
7
V
during a time interval of 0.2 s. Estimate
the total amount of charge transferred,
the current and the average power over
the 0.2 s.
avg
W
P
t
A
=
A
avg
Q
I
t
A
=
A
Numbers obtained from an old text. Actual current is likely far more.
We could calculate power right now, but lets do this in the
order requested. Besides, we cant get current without AQ,
charge transferred.
We need to think in terms of energy transformations rather
than work done by forces. The equation above tells us that
potential energy stored in clouds can be transferred to the
ground (at a different potential) by moving charge from cloud
to ground. We are given energy transferred and potential
difference, so we can calculate q.
Could I think of the cloud-earth system as a giant capacitor which stores energy?
You could, except our capacitor equation U=QV/2 assumes the same charge on both
plates; thats untrue here.
U q V A = A
E
transferred
= Q
transferred
AV
if
Continuing with our energy transformation idea:
Q
transferred
= E
transferred
/ AV
if
Q
transferred
= 10
9
J / 5x10
7
V
Thats a lot of charge (remember, typical charges are 10
-6
C.
Q
transferred
= 20 C
Once we have the charge transferred, the current is easy.
Q
I =
t
20 C
I = = 100 A
0.2 s
This is probably less than the actual
current in a lightning bolt by a factor of
anywhere from 10 to 1000. See this link.
Average power is just the total energy transferred divided by
the total time.
F
F
W
P =
t
transferred
E
P =
t
9
10 J
P =
0.2 s
9
P = 510 W
P = 5 GW
Holy ****, Batman. Thats the power output of five enormous
power plants!
Back to examples page.
The numbers in this calculation differ substantially
than the numbers in a homework problem(not
necessarily assigned this semester). This
lightning bolt carries relatively low current for a
long time through a high potential difference, and
transports a lot of energy.
In reality, there is no such thing as a universally-
typical lightning bolt, so expect different results for
different bolts. See here.
(a) Rate of energy conversion.
R=4O
+
-
I
c = 12 V
The total resistance in the
circuit is 6 O, so
V = I R
total
Energy is converted at the rate P
converted
=Ic=(2 A)(12 V)=24W.
Example: A 12 V battery with 2 O internal resistance is
connected to a 4 O resistor. Calculate (a) the rate at which
chemical energy is converted to electrical energy in the battery,
(b) the power dissipated internally in the battery, and (c) the
power output of the battery.
r=2O
I = c / R
total
=
12 V / 6 O = 2 A
(a) Rate of energy conversionofficial solution.
R=4O
+
-
I
c = 12 V
Actually, you dont officially know that resistances in series
add, so for tomorrow you might do this: start at the negative
terminal of the battery. Then
c - I R
2O
- I R
4O
= 0
r=2O
I = c / (R
2O
+ R
4O
) =
12 V / 6 O = 2 A
(b) Power dissipated internally in the battery.
R=4O
+
-
I=2A
c = 12 V
r=2O
P
dissipated
= I
2
r = (2 A)
2
(2 O) = 8 W.
(c) Power output of the battery.
P
output
= P
converted
- P
dissipated
= 24 W - 8 W = 16W.
(c) Power output of the battery (double-check).
R=4O
+
-
I=2A
c = 12 V
r=2O
I=2A
The output power is delivered to (and dissipated by) the
resistor:
P
output
= P
resistor
= I
2
R = (2 A)
2
(4 O) = 16W.
Back to examples page.
V
T
V
H
I
R
(a) Find the voltage at the point where the power wire enters
your house.
AV
HT
= IR
V
T
-V
H
= IR
V
H
= V
T
-IR
V
H
= (120 V) (110 A) (0.03O) = 116.7 V
Example: the electric utility company
supplies your house with electricity
from the main power lines at 120 V.
The wire from the pole to your house
has a resistance of 0.03 O. Suppose
your house is drawing 110 A of
current
(b) How much power is being dissipated in the wire from the
pole to your house?
V
T
V
H
I
R
P = IAV = I
2
R = (AV)
2
/R
P = I(V
T
-V
H
) = I
2
R = (V
T
-V
H
)
2
/R
P = (110 A) (120 V -116.7 V) = 363 W
or P = (110 A)
2
(0.03O) = 363 W
or P = (120 V 116.7 V)
2
/ (0.03O) = 363 W
Three different ways
to solve; all will give
the correct answer.
(c) How much power are you using inside your house?
V
T
V
H
I
R
You need to understand that your household voltage represents
the potential difference between the incoming and outgoing
power lines, and the outgoing is at ground (0 V in this
case)except
because the outgoing power line is at 0 V, you can
accidentally get this correct if you simply multiply the current
by the voltage at the point where the power wire enters your
house.
P = IAV
(c) How much power are you using inside your house?
V
T
V
H
I
R
P = (110 A) (116.7 V 0 V)
P = 12840 W
You dont want to use the P=I
2
R=V
2
/R equations because you
dont know the effective resistance of your house (although you
could calculate it).
P = (110 A) (120 V) (110 A)(3.3 V) is
also a reasonable way to work this part.
Back to examples page.
