MIPS ISA-II: Procedure Calls & Program Assembly

Module Outline
Review ISA and understand instruction encodings Arithmetic and Logical Instructions Review memory organization Memory (data movement) instructions

Control flow instructions

Procedure/Function calls Program assembly, linking, & encoding

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Reading
Reading 2.8, 2.12 Appendix B: B1 - B.6

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Procedure Calls
Basic functionality
Transfer of parameters & control to procedure Transfer of results & control back to the calling program Support for nested procedures

What is so hard about this?

Consider independently compiled code modules
o o o Where are the inputs? Where should I place the outputs? Recall: What do you need to know when you write procedures in C?

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Specifics
Where do we pass data
Preferably registers make the common case fast Memory as an overflow area

Nested procedures
The stack, $fp, $sp and $ra Saving and restoring machine state

Set of rules that developers/compilers abide by

Which registers can am I permitted to use with no consequence? Caller and callee save conventions for MIPS
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Basic Parameter Passing

arg1: arg2: .data .word 22, 20, 16, 4 .word 33,34,45,8 .text addi $t0, $0, 4 move $t3, $0 move $t1, $0 move $t2, $0 beq $t0, $0, exit addi $t0, $t0, -1 lw $a0, arg1($t1) lw $a1, arg2($t2) jal func add $t3, $t3, $v0 addi $t1, $t1, 4 addi $t2, $t2, 4 j loop sub $v0, $a0, $a1 jr $ra ---

Register usage What about nested calls? What about excess arguments?

loop:

PC + $31 4

PC $31

func: exit:

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Leaf Procedure Example

C code:

int leaf_example (int g, h, i, j) { int f; f = (g + h) - (i + j); return f; }

Arguments g, , j are passed in $a0, , $a3 f in $s0 (we need to save $s0 on stack we will see why later) Results are returned in $v0, $v1
argument registers
$a0 $a1 $a2 $a3
procedure

$v0 result $v1 registers

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Procedure Call Instructions

Procedure call: jump and link

jal ProcedureLabel
Address of following instruction put in $ra Jumps to target address

Procedure return: jump register

jr $ra
Copies $ra to program counter Can also be used for computed jumps
o e.g., for case/switch statements

Example:
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Leaf Procedure Example

MIPS code:

leaf_example: addi $sp, $sp, -4 sw $s0, 0($sp) add $t0, $a0, $a1 add $t1, $a2, $a3 sub $s0, $t0, $t1 add $v0, $s0, $zero lw $s0, 0($sp) addi $sp, $sp, 4 jr $ra

Save $s0 on stack

Procedure body

Result Restore $s0 Return

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Procedure Call Mechanics

High Address $fp
Old Stack Frame
System Wide Memory Map

$sp $sp

stack

$fp
arg registers return address dynamic data

$gp

static data text reserved

New Stack Frame

Saved registers

PC

$sp

local variables

compiler

compiler

ISA

Low Address

HW

addressing

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Example of the Stack Frame

arg 1 arg 2 $fp

..
callee $s0-$s9 saved registers caller $a0-$a3 saved registers $t0-$t9 local variables

Call Sequence 1. place excess arguments 2. save caller save registers ($a0-$a3, $t0-$t9) 3. jal 4. allocate stack frame 5. save callee save registers ($s0-$s9, $fp, $ra) 6 set frame pointer Return 1. place function argument in $v0 2. restore callee save registers 3. restore $fp 4. pop frame 5. jr $31
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..
$fp $sp $ra

Policy of Use Conventions

Name Register number $zero 0 $v0-$v1 2-3 $a0-$a3 4-7 $t0-$t7 8-15 $s0-$s7 16-23 $t8-$t9 24-25 $gp 28 $sp 29 $fp 30 $ra 31 Usage the constant value 0 values for results and expression evaluation arguments temporaries saved more temporaries global pointer stack pointer frame pointer return address

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Summary: Register Usage

$a0 $a3: arguments (regs 4 7) $v0, $v1: result values (regs 2 and 3) $t0 $t9: temporaries
Can be overwritten by callee

$s0 $s7: saved

Must be saved/restored by callee

$gp: global pointer for static data (reg 28) $sp: stack pointer (reg 29) $fp: frame pointer (reg 30) $ra: return address (reg 31)
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Non-Leaf Procedures
Procedures that call other procedures For nested call, caller needs to save on the stack:
Its return address Any arguments and temporaries needed after the call

Restore from the stack after the call

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Non-Leaf Procedure Example

C code:

int fact (int n) { if (n < 1) return f; else return n * fact(n - 1); }

Argument n in $a0 Result in $v0

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Template for a Procedure

1. Allocate stack frame (decrement stack pointer) 2. Save any registers (callee save registers) 3. Procedure body (remember some arguments may be on the stack!) 4. Restore registers (callee save registers) 5. Pop stack frame (increment stack pointer) 6. Return (jr $ra)

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Non-Leaf Procedure Example

int fact (int n) { callee save if (n < 1) return f; else return n * fact(n - 1); restore

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Non-Leaf Procedure Example

MIPS code:
fact: addi Callee save sw sw Termination slti Check beq addi Leaf Node addi jr L1: addi jal Recursive call lw lw Intermediate addi Node mul jr $sp, $ra, $a0, $t0, $t0, $v0, $sp, $ra $a0, fact $a0, $ra, $sp, $v0, $ra $sp, -8 4($sp) 0($sp) $a0, 1 $zero, L1 $zero, 1 $sp, 8 $a0, -1 0($sp) 4($sp) $sp, 8 $a0, $v0 # # # # # # # # # # # # # # adjust stack for 2 items save return address save argument test for n < 1 if so, result is 1 pop 2 items from stack and return else decrement n recursive call restore original n and return address pop 2 items from stack multiply to get result and return
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Module Outline
Review ISA and understand instruction encodings Arithmetic and Logical Instructions Review memory organization Memory (data movement) instructions

Control flow instructions

Procedure/Function calls Program assembly, linking, & encoding

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The Complete Picture

C program compiler Assembly assembler Object module Object libarary

Reading: 2.12, B2, B3, B4, B5

linker executable

loader memory

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The Assembler
Create a binary encoding of all native instructions
Translation of all pseudo-instructions Computation of all branch offsets and jump addresses Symbol table for unresolved (library) references

Create an object file with all pertinent information Header (information)

Text segment Data segment Relocation information

Example:

Symbol table (21)

Assembly Process
One pass vs. two pass assembly Effect of fixed vs. variable length instructions

Time, space and one pass assembly

Local labels, global labels, external labels and the symbol table
What does mean when a symbol is unresolved?

Absolute addresses and re-location

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Example
.data
L1: .word 0x44,22,33,55 # array .text .globl main main: la $t0, L1 li $t1, 4 add $t2, $t2, $zero lw $t3, 0($t0) add $t2, $t2, $t3 addi $t0, $t0, 4 addi $t1, $t1, -1 bne $t1, $zero, loop bgt $t2, $0, then move $s0, $t2 j exit move $s1, $t2 li $v0, 10 syscall

What changes when you relocate code?

00400000] 3c081001 [00400004] 34090004 [00400008] 01405020 [0040000c] 8d0b0000 [00400010] 014b5020 [00400014] 21080004 [00400018] 2129ffff [0040001c] 1520fffc [00400020] 000a082a [00400024] 14200003 [00400028] 000a8021 [0040002c] 0810000d [00400030] 000a8821 [00400034] 3402000a [00400038] 0000000c
Assembly Program

loop:

lui $8, 4097 [L1] ori $9, $0, 4 add $10, $10, $0 lw $11, 0($8) add $10, $10, $11 addi $8, $8, 4 addi $9, $9, -1 bne $9, $0, -16 [loop-0x0040001c] slt $1, $0, $10 bne $1, $0, 12 [then-0x00400024] addu $16, $0, $10 j 0x00400034 [exit] addu $17, $0, $10 ori $2, $0, 10 syscall
Assembled Binary

Native Instructions

then: exit:

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Linker & Loader

Linker
Links independently compiled modules Determines real addresses Updates the executables with real addresses

Loader
As the name implies Specifics are operating system dependent

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Linking
Program A Program B
header text

Assembly A

static data

Assembly B

cross reference labels

Why do we need independent compilation?

reloc symbol table debug

Study: Example on pg. 143

What are the issues with respect to independent compilation? references across files (can be to data or code!)
absolute addresses and relocation
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Example:
# separate file .text addi $4, $0, 4 addi $5, $0, 5 jal func_add done 0x20040004 0x20050005 000011 0x0340200a 0x0000000c

0x00400000
0x00400004 0x00400008 0x0040000c 0x00400010 0x00400014 0x00400018 Ans: 0c100005

0x20040004
0x20050005 ? 0x3402000a 0x0000000c 0x008551020 0x03e00008

# separate file .text .globl func_add func_add: add $2, $4, $5 0x00851020 jr $31 0x03e00008

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Loading a Program
Load from image file on disk into memory
1. Read header to determine segment sizes

2. Create virtual address space

3. Copy text and initialized data into memory
o Or set page table entries so they can be faulted in

4. Set up arguments on stack

5. Initialize registers (including $sp, $fp, $gp) 6. Jump to startup routine
o o Copies arguments to $a0, and calls main When main returns, do exit syscall

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Dynamic Linking
Static Linking
All labels are resolved at link time Link all procedures that may be called by the program Size of executables?

Dynamic Linking: Only link/load library procedure when it is called

Requires procedure code to be relocatable Avoids image bloat caused by static linking of all (transitively) referenced libraries Automatically picks up new library versions

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Lazy Linkage

Indirection table
Stub: Loads routine ID, Jump to linker/loader Linker/loader code

Dynamically mapped code

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The Computing Model Revisited

Register File (Programmer Visible State) Memory Interface stack

0x00 0x01 0x02 0x03

0x1F

Processor Internal Buses Dynamic Data

Data segment (static) Text Segment Programmer Invisible State Program Counter Instruction register Kernel registers Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

0xFFFFFFFF

Reserved

Memory Map

Program Execution and the von Neumann model

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Summary
Instruction complexity is only one variable
lower instruction count vs. higher CPI / lower clock rate

Design Principles:
simplicity favors regularity smaller is faster good design demands compromise make the common case fast

Instruction set architecture

a very important abstraction indeed!

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Study Guide
Compute number of bytes to encode a SPIM program What does it mean for a code segment to be relocatable? Identify addresses that need to be modified when a program is relocated.
Given the new start address modify the necessary addresses

Given the assembly of an independently compiled procedure, ensure that it follows the MIPS calling conventions, modifying it if necessary

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Study Guide (cont.)

Given a SPIM program with nested procedures, ensure that you know what registers are stored in the stack as a consequence of a call Encode/disassemble jal and jr instructions Computation of jal encodings for independently compiled modules How can I make procedure calls faster?
Hint: What about a call is it that takes time?

How are independently compiled modules linked into a single executable? (assuming one calls a procedure located in another)

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Glossary
Argument registers Caller save registers Callee save registers Disassembly Frame pointer Independent compilation Labels: local, global, external Linker/loader Linking: static vs. dynamic vs. lazy Native instructions Nested procedures Object file One/two pass assembly Procedure invocation Pseudo instructions Relocatable code Stack frame Stack pointer Symbol table Unresolved symbol
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