Chapter 2 Assemblers

System Software Chih-Shun Hsu

Basic Assembler Functions

Convert mnemonic operation codes to their machine language equivalent Convert symbolic operands to their equivalent machine addresses Build the machine instructions in the proper format Convert the data constants specified in the source program into their machine representations Write the object program and the assembly listing

Two Pass Assembler(2/1)

Forward referencea reference to a label that is defined later in the program Because of forward reference, most assembler make two pass over the source program The first pass does little more than scan the source program for label definitions and assign addresses The second pass performs most of the actual translation Assembler directives (or pseudo-instructions) provide instructions to the assembler itself

Two Pass Assembler(2/2)

Pass 1 (define symbols)

Assign addresses to all statements in the program Save the values (addresses) assigned to all labels Perform some processing of assembler directives

Pass 2 (assemble instructions and generate object program)

Assemble instructions (translating operation codes and looking up addresses Generate data values defined by BYTE, WORD, etc. Perform processing of assembler directives not done during Pass 1 Write the object program and the assembly listing

Assembler Data Structure and Variable

Two major data structures:

Operation Code Table (OPTAB): is used to look up mnemonic operation codes and translate them to their machine language equivalents Symbol Table (SYMTAB): is used to store values (addresses) assigned to labels Location Counter (LOCCTR) is used to help the assignment of addresses LOCCTR is initialized to the beginning address specified in the START statement The length of the assembled instruction or data area to be generated is added to LOCCTR

Variable:

OPTAB and SYMTAB

OPTAB must contain the mnemonic operation code and its machine language In more complex assembler, it also contain information about instruction format and length For a machine that has instructions of different length, we must search OPTAB in the first pass to find the instruction length for incrementing LOCCTR SYMTAB includes the name and value (address) for each label, together with flags to indicate error conditions OPTAB and SYMTAB are usually organized as hash tables, with mnemonic operation code or label name as the key, for efficient retrieval

Example of a SIC Assembler Language Program (3/1)

Example of a SIC Assembler Language Program (3/2)

for (int i=0; i<4096; i++) { scanf(%c,&BUFFER[i]); if (BUFFER[i]==0) break; } LENGTH=i;

Example of a SIC Assembler Language Program (3/3)

for (int i=0; i<LENGTH; i++) { printf(%c,BUFFER[i]); }

Program with Object Code (3/1)

14 1033

Program with Object Code (3/2)

54

1039+ 8000= 9039

Program with Object Code (3/3)

SYMTAB
symbol FIRST CLOOP ENDFIL EOF THREE ZERO RETADR LENGTH value 1000 1003 1015 102A 102D 1030 1033 1036 flags BUFFER RDREC RLOOP EXIT INPUT MAXLEN WRREC WLOOP OUTPUT 1039 2039 203F 2057 205D 205E 2061 2064 2079

Object Program Format

Header record (H)

Col. 2-7 program name Col. 8-13 Starting address of object program (Hex) Col. 14-19 Length of object program in bytes (Hex) Col. 2-7 Starting address for object code in this record (Hex) Col. 8-9 length of object code in this record (Hex) Col 10-69. object code, represented in Hex
Col.2-7 address of first executable instruction in object program (Hex)

Text record (T)

End record (E)

Object Program

Algorithm for Pass 1 of Assembler(3/1)

read first input line if OPCODE=START then begin save #[OPERAND] as starting address initialize LOCCTR to starting address write line to intermediate file read next input line end else initialize LOCCTR to 0 while OPCODEEND do begin if this is not a comment line then begin if there is a symbol in the LABEL field then

Algorithm for Pass 1 of Assembler(3/2)

begin search SYMTAB for LABEL if found then set error flag (duplicate symbol) else insert (LABEL, LOCCTR) into SYMTAB end {if symbol} search OPTAB for OPCODE if found then add 3 {instruction length} to LOCCTR else if OPCODE=WORD then add 3 to LOCCTR else if OPCODE=RESW then add 3 * #[OPERAND] to LOCCTR

Algorithm for Pass 1 of Assembler(3/3)

else if OPCODE=RESB then add #[OPERAND] to LOCCTR else if OPCODE=BYTE then begin find length of constant in bytes add length to LOCCTR end {if BYTE} else set error flag (invalid operation code) end {if not a comment} write line to intermediate file read next input line end {while not END} Write last line to intermediate file Save (LOCCTR-starting address) as program length

Algorithm for Pass 2 of Assembler(3/1)

read first input line (from intermediate file) If OPCODE=START then begin write listing line read next input line end {if START} Write Header record to object program Initialize first Text record While OPCODE END do begin if this is not a comment line then begin search OPTAB for OPCODE if found then begin

Algorithm for Pass 2 of Assembler(3/2)

if there is a symbol in OPERAND field then begin search SYMTAB for OPERAND if found then store symbol value as operand address else begin store 0 as operand address set error flag (undefined symbol) end end {if symbol} else store 0 as operand address assemble the object code instruction end {if opcode found}

Algorithm for Pass 2 of Assembler(3/3)

else if OPCODE=BYTE or WORD then convert constant to object code if object code will not fit into the current Text record then begin write Text record to object program initialize new Text record end add object code to Text record end {if not comment} write listing line read next input line end {while not END} write last Text record to object program Write End record to object program Write last listing line

Machine-Dependent Assembler Features

Indirect addressing is indicated by adding the prefix @ to the operand Immediate operands are denoted with the prefix # The assembler directive BASE is used in conjunction with base relative addressing The extended instruction format is specified with the prefix + added to the operation code Register-to-register instruction are faster than the corresponding register-to-memory operations because they are shorter and because they do not require another memory reference

Example of SIC/XE Program(3/1)

Example of SIC/XE Program(3/2)

Example of SIC/XE Program(3/3)

Program with Object Code (3/1)

Object Code Translation

Format 3 Format 4

op(6) n i x b p e op(6) n i xbpe

disp(12) address(20)

Line 10: STL=14, n=1, i=1ni=3, op+ni=14+3=17, RETADR=0030, x=0, b=0, p=1, e=0xbpe=2, PC=0003, disp=RETADR-PC=030003=02D, xbpe+disp=202D, obj=17202D Line 12: LDB=68, n=0, i=1ni=1, op+ni=68+1=69, LENGTH=0033, x=0, b=0, p=1, e=0xbpe=2, PC=0006, disp=LENGTH-PC=033006=02D, xbpe+disp=202D, obj=69202D Line 15: JSUB=48, n=1, i=1ni=3, op+ni=48+3=4B, RDREC=01036, x=0, b=0, p=0, e=1, xbpe=1, xbpe+RDREC=101036, obj=4B101036 Line 40: J=3C, n=1, i=1ni=3, op+ni=3C+3=3F, CLOOP=0006, x=0, b=0, p=1, e=0xbpe=2, PC=001A, disp=CLOOP-PC=0006-001A=14=FEC(2s complement), xbpe+disp=2FEC, obj=3F2FEC Line 55: LDA=00, n=0, i=1ni=1, op+ni=00+1=01, disp=#3003, x=0, b=0, p=0, e=0xbpe=0, xbpe+disp=0003, obj=010003

Program with Object Code (3/2)

Object Code Translation

op(8)

r1(4)

r2(4)

Line 125: CLEAR=B4, r1=X=1, r2=0, obj=B410 Line 133: LDT=74, n=0, i=1ni=1, op+ni=74+1=75, x=0, b=0, p=0, e=1xbpe=1, #4096=01000, xbpe+address=101000, obj=75101000 Line 160: STCH=54, n=1, i=1ni=3, op+ni=54+3=57, BUFFER=0036, B=0033, disp=BUFFER-B=003, x=1, b=1, p=0, e=0xbpe=C, xbpe+disp=C003, obj=57C003

Program with Object Code (3/3)

SYMTAB
SYMBOL
FIRST CLOOP ENDFIL EOF RETADR LENGTH BUFFER

VALUE
0000 0006 001A 002D 0030 0033 0036

FLAGS

SYMBOL
RDREC RLOOP EXIT INPUT WRREC WLOOP OUTPUT

VALUE
1036 1040 1056 105C 105D 1062 1076

FLAGS

Program Relocation

The actual starting address of the program is not known until load time An object program that contains the information necessary to perform this kind of modification is called a relocatable program No modification is needed: operand is using programcounter relative or base relative addressing The only parts of the program that require modification at load time are those that specified direct (as opposed to relative) addresses Modification record

Col. 2-7 Starting location of the address field to be modified, relative to the beginning of the program (Hex) Col. 8-9 Length of the address field to be modified, in half-bytes (Hex)

Examples of Program Relocation

Object Program

Machine-Independent Assembler Features

Literals Symbol-defining statements Expressions Program block Control sections and program linking

Program with Additional Assembler Features(3/1)

Program with Additional Assembler Features(3/2)

Program with Additional Assembler Features(3/3)

Literals(2/1)

Write the value of a constant operand as a part of the instruction that uses it Such an operand is called a literal Avoid having to define the constant elsewhere in the program and make up a label for it A literal is identified with the prefix =, which is followed by a specification of the literal value Examples of literals in the statements:

45 215

001A 1062

ENDFIL WLOOP

LDA TD

=CEOF =X05

032010 E32011

Literals(2/2)

With a literal, the assembler generates the specified value as a constant at some other memory location The address of this generated constant is used as the target address for the machine instruction All of the literal operands used in the program are gathered together into one or more literal pools Normally literals are placed into a pool at the end of the program A LTORG statement creates a literal pool that contains all of the literal operands used since the previous LTORG Most assembler recognize duplicate literals: the same literal used in more than one place and store only one copy of the specified data value LITTAB (literal table): contains the literal name, the operand value and length, and the address assigned to the operand when it is placed in a literal pool

Symbol-Defining Statements

Assembler directive that allows the programmer to define symbols and specify their values General form: symbol EQU value Line 133: +LDT #4096 MAXLEN EQU 4096 +LDT #MAXLEN It is much easier to find and change the value of MAXLEN Assembler directive that indirect assigns values to symbols ORG
RESB EQU EQU EQU 1100 STAB STAB+6 STAB+9

STAB SYMBOL VALUE FLAGS

STAB
SYMBOL VALUE FLAGS

RESB ORG RESB RESW RESW ORG

1100 STAB 6 1 2 STAB+1100

Expressions

Assembler allow arithmetic expressions formed according to the normal rules using the operator +, -, *, and / Individual terms in the expression may be constants, user-defined symbols, or special terms The most common such special term is the current value of the location counter (designed by *) Expressions are classified as either absolute expressions or relative expressions
Symbol RETADR Type R Value 0030

BUFFER
BUFFEND MAXLEN

R
R A

0036
1036 1000

Program Block(2/1)

Program blocks: segments of code that are rearranged within a single object unit Control sections: segments that are translated into independent object program units USE indicates which portions of the source program belong to the various blocks
Block name (default) Block number Address Length 0 0000 0066

CDATA CBLKS

1 2

0066 0071

000B 1000

Program Block(2/2)

Because the large buffer area is moved to the end of the object program, we no longer need to used extended format instructions Program readability is improved if the definition of data areas are placed in the source program close to the statements that reference them It does not matter that the Text records of the object program are not in sequence by address; the loader will simply load the object code from each record at the indicated address

Example Program with Multiple Program Blocks(3/1)

Example Program with Multiple Program Blocks(3/2)

Example Program with Multiple Program Blocks(3/3)

Program Blocks Traced Through Assembly and Loading Processes

Object Program

Control sections(3/1)

References between control sections are called external references The assembler generates information for each external reference that will allow the loader to perform the required linking The EXTDEF (external definition) statement in a control section names symbol, called external symbols, that are define in this section and may be used by other sections The EXTREF (external reference) statement names symbols that are used in this control section and are defined elsewhere

Control sections(3/2)

Define record (D)

Col.

2-7 Name of external symbol defined in this control section Col. 8-13 Relative address of symbol within this control section (Hex) Col. 14-73 Repeat information in Col. 2-13 for other external symbols

Refer record (R)

Col.

2-7 Name of external symbol referred to in this control section Col. 8-73 Names of other external reference symbols

Control sections(3/3)

Modification record (revised : M)

Col.

2-7 Starting address of the field to be modified, relative to the beginning of the control section (Hex) Col. 8-9 Length of the field to be modified, in halfbytes (Hex) Col. 10 Modification flag (+ or -) Col. 11-16 External symbol whose value is to be added to or subtracted from the indicated field

Example Program with Control Sections(3/1)

Example Program with Control Sections(3/2)

Example Program with Control Sections(3/3)

Object Program(2/1)

Object Program(2/2)

One-Pass Assemblers

Eliminate forward references: require that all such areas be defined in the source program before they are referenced One-pass assembler:
Generate

their object code in memory for immediate

execution Load-and-go assembler is useful in a system that is oriented toward program development and testing

Handle Forward Reference

The symbol used as an operand is entered into the symbol table This entry is flagged to indicate that the symbol is undefined The address of the operand field of the instruction that refers to undefined symbol is added to a list of forward references associated with the symbol table entry When the definition for a symbol is encountered, the forward reference list for that symbol is scanned, and the proper address is inserted into any instructions previously generated

Sample Program for One-Pass assembler(3/1)

Sample Program for One-Pass assembler(3/2)

Sample Program for One-Pass assembler(3/3)

Example of Handling Forward Reference(2/1)

Example of Handling Forward Reference(2/2)

Multi-Pass Assemblers(6/1)
HALFSZ MAXLEN PREVBT . BUFFER BUFFEND EQU EQU EQU EQU
RESB *

MAXLEN/2 BUFFEND-BUFFER BUFFER-1

4096

Multi-Pass Assemblers(6/2)

Multi-Pass Assemblers(6/3)

Multi-Pass Assemblers(6/4)

Multi-Pass Assemblers(6/5)

Multi-Pass Assemblers(6/6)

MASM Assembler

An MASM assembler language program is written as a collection of segments Commonly used classes are CODE, DATA, CONST, and STACK During program execution, segments are addressed via the x86 segment registers ASSUME tells MASM the contents of a segment register; a programmer must provide instructions to load this register when the program is executed A near jump is a jump to a target in the same code segment; a far jump is a jump to a target in a different code segment

SPARC Assembler

A SPARC assembler language program is divided into units called sections

.TEXT .DATA .RODATA .BSS

Executable instructions Initialized read/ write data Read-only data Uninitialized data areas

A global symbol is either symbol that is defined in the program and made accessible to others A weak symbol is similar to a global symbol, but the definition of a weak symbol may be overridden by a global symbol with the same name SPARC branch instructions are delayed branches: the instruction immediately following a branch instruction is actually executed before the branch is taken Programmers often place NOP (no-operation) instructions in delay slots