Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

Slides for courses based on the textbook

2008 Nigel Cross

Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

Author: Professor Nigel Cross

Publisher: John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 2008
(4th edition)

ISBN: 978-0-470-51926-4
2008 Nigel Cross

Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

Contents

Part One: Understanding Design

1

The Nature of Design

Design Activities
Design Problems
Problem Structures

Design Ability
What Designers Say
How Designers Think
Learning to Design

The Design Process

Descriptive Models
Prescriptive Models
An Integrative Model

2008 Nigel Cross

Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

Contents
Part Two: Doing Design
4

New Design Procedures

Systematic Procedures
Design Methods
Creative Methods
Rational Methods

5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12
Eight design methods

2008 Nigel Cross

Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

Contents

Part Two: Doing Design - the methods

5

Identifying Opportunitites
User Scenarios

Clarifying Objectives
Objectives Tree

10 Generating Alternatives
Morphological Chart

Establishing Functions
Function Analysis

11 Evaluating Alternatives
Weighted Objectives

Setting Requirements
Performance Specification

12 Improving Details
Value Engineering

2008 Nigel Cross

Determining Characteristics
Quality Function Deployment

Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

Contents
Part Three: Managing Design
13 Design Strategies
What is a Design Strategy?
Frameworks for Action
Strategy Control
Setting Strategies and Choosing Tactics
14 Product Development
Product Design
Product Planning
Product Innovation

2008 Nigel Cross

Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

1 The Nature of Design

Designers have to:

Communicate - a final design proposal

Evaluate - alternative possible solution concepts
Generate - some solution concepts
Explore - the problem territory

2008 Nigel Cross

Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

1 The Nature of Design

Design problems have:

A goal to be achieved
Some constraints within which the goal must be achieved
Some criteria by which a good solution is recognised

Constraints set specific (usually quantitative) targets or limits

Criteria are more flexible and might be used for judging between different
design proposals, each of which meets the specific constraint targets.

2008 Nigel Cross

Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

1 The Nature of Design

Design problems are ill-defined problems

Characteristics of ill-defined problems:

There is no definitive formulation of the problem

Any problem formulation may embody inconsistencies
Formulations of the problem are solution-dependent

Proposing solutions is a means of understanding the problem

There is no definitive solution to the problem

2008 Nigel Cross

Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

2 Design Ability

Because of the nature of design problems,

designers tend to be solution-focused
(whereas scientists tend to be problem-focused).

Designers use solution conjectures as ways of

exploring and understanding the problem.

Designers actively manage and control the

process of design.
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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

2 Design Ability

Experienced designers

Novice designers

Make rapid, controlled exploration

of the problem

Can become bogged down

in data gathering and analysis

Move between solution concepts

and problem exploration

Can become fixated on an early

solution concept

Maintain a broad view across

several sub-solution alternatives

Can concentrate on exploring

single sub-solutions in depth

Make designing look easy and

intuitive

Need to practice and develop

basic techniques

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

3 The Design Process

Models of the design process

Designers have to:

Explore - the problem territory

Generate - solution concepts

Evaluate - alternative solution concepts

Communicate - a final proposal

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

3 The Design Process

Models of the design process

A simple model of the design process,

derived from what designers have to do:
Exploration

Generation
(iteration)

Evaluation

Communication
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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

3 The Design Process

Models of the design process
Frenchs model:
Analysis of problem

Statement of problem
Conceptual design
Selected schemes
Embodiment of schemes
Detailing

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

3 The Design Process

Models of the design process

VDI model:
Overall problem

Overall solution

Sub-problems

Sub-solutions

Partial problems

Partial solutions

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

3 The Design Process

Models of the design process
Crosss basic model:

Overall problem

Overall solution

Sub-problems

Sub-solutions

Assumes that designers develop the co-evolution

of problem and solution together, as well as
analysing overall problem into sub-problems and
synthesising sub-solutions into an overall solution.

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

4 New Design Procedures

Creative Methods
Brainstorming:
Rules of Brainstorming

No criticism allowed during the session

Large quantity of ideas wanted
Crazy ideas are welcome
Keep ideas short and snappy
Combine and improve on others ideas

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

4 New Design Procedures

Creative Methods
Synectics:
Uses analogies

Direct analogies
e.g. biological

Personal analogies
Imagine yourself in the situation

Symbolic analogies
Poetry, metaphors, similes

Fantasy analogies
Impossible wishes

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

4 New Design Procedures

Creative Methods
Enlarging the search space:
Transformation
magnify, minify, modify, unify, subtract, add, etc.

Random input
e.g. open a book and choose a word

Why? Why? Why?

a string of questions

Counter-planning
thesis + antithesis = synthesis

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

4 New Design Procedures

Rational Methods: the methods in the book
Identifying Opportunitites
User Scenarios

Determining Characteristics
Quality Function Deployment

Clarifying Objectives
Objectives Tree

Generating Alternatives
Morphological Chart

Establishing Functions
Function Analysis

Evaluating Alternatives
Weighted Objectives

Setting Requirements
Performance Specification

Improving Details
Value Engineering

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

4 New Design Procedures

Rational Methods: mapped on to Crosss model

Overall
problem

Overall
solution
Clarifying
objectives

Identifying
opportunities

Evaluating
alternatives

Establishing
functions

Setting
requirements

Improving
details

Determining
characteristics

Sub-problems

Generating
alternatives

Sub-solutions

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

4 New Design Procedures

Rational Methods: exploring overall problem/solution

Overall problem

Overall solution

Clarifying
objectives

Identifying
opportunities

Improving
details

Objectives tree

User scenarios

Value engineering

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

4 New Design Procedures

Rational Methods: analysing overall problem
into sub-problems
Overall problem
Clarifying objectives
Objectives tree

Establishing functions
Function analysis

Setting requirements
Performance specification

Sub-problems

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

4 New Design Procedures

Rational Methods: exploring sub-problems
and sub-solutions

Setting
requirements
Performance
specification

Determing
characteristics
QFD

Sub-problems

Generating
alternatives
Morphological
chart

Sub-solutions

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

4 New Design Procedures

Rational Methods: synthesising sub-solutions
into overall solution
Overall solution
Improving details
Value engineering

Evaluating alternatives
Weighted objectives

Generating alternatives
Morphological chart

Sub-solutions

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

4 New Design Procedures

Rational Methods: the overall model

Overall
problem

Overall
solution
Clarifying
objectives

Identifying
opportunities

Evaluating
alternatives

Establishing
functions

Setting
requirements

Improving
details

Determining
characteristics

Sub-problems

Generating
alternatives

Sub-solutions

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

5 Identifying Opportunities
The User Scenarios Method
Summary

The aim of the user scenarios method is to identify and define an opportunity for a
new or improved product.
1. Practice being a user of a product or service.
Decide which users (or users) point(s) of view to adopt and the variations to the user trip or trips
you are going to take.
2. Observe users in action.
Both experienced and inexperienced users can provide valuable insights.

3. Question users about their experiences.

This can include the use of formal, structured or unstructured questionnaires, and focused group
discussions.
4. Create relevant user personas and scenarios.
A persona is a well-defined but hypothetical user, and a scenario is a storyline about their use of
the product or service.

5. Define the preliminary goal, context, constraints and criteria for a new product opportunity.
These are the key steps in formulating a good brief for a new product design.

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

6 Clarifying Objectives
The Objectives Tree Method
Summary

The aim of the objectives tree method is to clarify design objectives and subobjectives, and the relationships between them.
1. Prepare a list of design objectives.
These are taken from the design brief, from questions to the client, and from discussion in the
design team.
2. Order the list into sets of higher-level and lower-level objectives.
The expanded list of objectives and sub-objectives is grouped roughly into hierarchical levels.
3. Draw a diagrammatic tree of objectives, showing hierarchical relationships and interconnections.
The branches (or roots) in the tree represent relationships which suggest means of achieving
objectives.

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

7 Establishing Functions
The Function Analysis Method
Summary

The aim of the function analysis method is to establish the functions required, and
the system boundary, of a new design.
1. Express the overall function for the design in terms of the conversion of inputs into outputs.
The overall, black box function should be broad - widening the system boundary.
2. Break down the overall function into a set of essential sub-functions.
The sub-functions comprise all the tasks that have to be performed inside the black box.
3. Draw a block diagram showing the interactions between sub-functions.
The black box is made transparent, so that the sub-functions and their interconnections are
clarified.
4. Draw the system boundary.
The system boundary defines the functional limits for the product or device to be designed.
5. Search for appropriate components for performing the sub-functions and their interactions.
Many alternative components may be capable of performing the identified functions.

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

8 Setting Requirements
The Performance Specification Method
Summary

The aim of the performance specification method is to make an accurate specification

of the performance required of a design solution.
1. Consider the different levels of generality of solution which might be applicable.
There might be a choice between
- product alternatives
- product types
- product features
2. Determine the level of generality at which to operate.
This decision is usually made by the client. The higher the level of generality, the more freedom the
designer has.
3. Identify the required performance attributes.
Attributes should be stated in terms which are independent of any particular solution.
4. State succinct and precise performance requirements for each attribute.
Wherever possible, specifications should be in quantified terms, and identify ranges between limits.

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

9 Determining Characteristics
The Quality Function Deployment (QFD) Method
Summary

The aim of the quality function deployment method is to set targets to be

achieved for the engineering characteristics of a product, such that they satisfy
customer requirements.
1. Identify customer requirements in terms of product attributes.
It is important that the voice of the customer is recognised, and that customer requirements
are not subject to reinterpretation by the design team.
2. Determine the relative importance of the attributes.
Techniques of rank-ordering or points-allocation can be used to help determine the relative
weights that should be attached to the various attributes. Percentage weights are normally
used.
3. Evaluate the attributes of competing products.
Performance scores for competing products and the design teams own product (if a version of
it already exists) should be listed against the set of customer requirements.
continued . . . .

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

9 Determining Characteristics
The Quality Function Deployment (QFD) Method
4. Draw a matrix of product attributes against engineering characteristics.
Include all the engineering characteristics that influence any of the product attributes
and ensure that they are expressed in measurable units.
5. Identify the relationships between engineering characteristics and product attributes.
The strength of the relationships can be indicated either by symbols or numbers; using
numbers has some advantages, but can introduce a spurious accuracy.
6. Identify any relevant interactions between engineering characteristics.
The roof matrix of the house of quality provides this check, but may be dependent
upon changes in the design concept.
7. Set target figures to be achieved for the engineering characteristics.
Use information from competitor products or from trials with customers.

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

10 Generating Alternatives
The Morphological Chart Method
Summary

The aim of the morphological chart method is to generate the complete

range of alternative design solutions for a product, and hence to widen the
search for potential new solutions.
1. List the features or functions that are essential to the product.
Whilst not being too long, the list must comprehensively cover the functions, at an
appropriate level of generalisation.
2. For each feature or function list the means by which it might be achieved.
These lists might include new ideas as well as known existing components or subsolutions.
3. Draw up a chart containing all the possible sub-solutions.
This morphological chart represents the total solution space for the product, made up
of the combinations of sub-solutions.
4. Identify feasible combinations of sub-solutions.
The total number of possible combinations may be very large, and so search
strategies may have to be guided by constraints or criteria.

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

11 Evaluating Alternatives
The Weighted Objectives Method
Summary

The aim of the weighted objectives method is to compare the utility values of
alternative design proposals, on the basis of performance against differentially
weighted objectives.
1. List the design objectives.
These may need modification from an initial list; an objectives tree can also be a useful feature
of this method.
2. Rank order the list of objectives.
Pair-wise comparisons may help to establish the rank order.
3. Assign relative weightings to the objectives.
These numerical values should be on an interval scale; an alternative is to assign relative
weights at different levels of an objectives tree, so that all weights sum to 1.0.
4. Establish performance parameters or utility scores for each of the objectives.
Both quantitative and qualitative objectives should be reduced to performance on simple points
scales.
5. Calculate and compare the relative utility values of the alternative designs.
Multiply each parameter score by its weighted value - the best alternative has the highest sum
value; comparison and discussion of utility value profiles may be a better design aid than
simply choosing the best.
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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

12 Improving Details
The Value Engineering Method
Summary

The aim of the value engineering method is to increase or maintain the value of a
product to its purchaser whilst reducing its cost to its producer.
1. List the separate components of the product, and identify the function served by each
component.
If possible, the actual product should be disassembled into its components; exploded diagrams and
component-function charts are more useful than parts lists.
2. Determine the values of the identified functions.
These must be the values as perceived by customers.
3. Determine the costs of the components.
These must be after fully finished and assembled.
4. Search for ways of reducing cost without reducing value, or of adding value without adding cost.
A creative criticism is necessary, aimed at increasing the value/cost ratio.
5. Evaluate alternatives and select improvements.

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

13 Design Strategies

A design strategy provides two things:

1.

A framework of intended actions.

2.

A management control function.

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

13 Design Strategies
A possible framework
Stage in the design process

Appropriate method

1. Identifying opportunities

User scenarios

2. Clarifying objectives

Objectives tree

3. Establishing functions

Function analysis

4. Setting requirements

Performance specification

5. Determining characteristics

Quality function deployment

6. Generating alternatives

Morphological chart

7. Evaluating alternatives

Weighted objectives

8. Improving details

Value engineering
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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

13 Design Strategies
Another possible framework
Stage

Tactics to be used

1. Divergent problem exploration

Morphological Chart
Brainstorming

2. Structuring of problem

Objectives Tree
Performance Specification

3. Convergence on solution

Synectics

An appropriate strategy framework depends on the design situation

and the design teams strengths and weaknesses.

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

13 Design Strategies
Strategy control

Keep your objectives clear

Keep your strategy under review

Involve other people

Keep separate files for different aspects

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

14 Product Development
Design is only one part of a larger process
of product development:

producer

consumer
designer

business
strategy

product
policy

new
product

evaluate
& choose

use
product

marketing feedback

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

14 Product Development
Opportunity areas: from low risk
to high risk
market
pull

new
markets

product
development

product
innovation
technology
push

current
market

product
renewal

product
development

current
technology

new
technology

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Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design

Author: Nigel Cross

Publisher: John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 2008
(4th edition)
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