STRESS ANALYSIS

T. N. GOPINATH

The objective of pipe stress analysis is to ensure

safety against failure of the Piping System by verifying the
structural integrity against the loading conditions, both
external and internal, expected to occur during the lifetime
of the system in the plant. This is to be undertaken with the
most economic considerations.

1.1

Objectives of stress Analysis are to:

1.1.1 Ensure that the stresses in the piping

components in the system are within
the allowable limits.
1.1.2 Solve dynamic problems developed
due to mechanical vibration, acoustic
vibration, fluid hammer, pulsation,
relief valves etc.
1.1.3 Solve the problems associated due to
higher or lower operating temperature
such as:
a) Displacement Stress range
b) Nozzle loadings on the
connected equipments
c) Pipe displacements
d) Loads and moments on the
supporting structures.

1.3

1.3.1.

1.3.2.
1.3.3.
1.3.4.
1.3.5.

Hence the steps involved in the stress

analysis can be listed as . .
Identify the potential loads that the
piping system would encounter during
the life of the plant.
Relate each of these loads to the
stresses and strains developed.
Get the cumulative effect of the
potential loads in the system.
Decide the allowable limits.The system
can withstand without failure.
After the system is designed, to ensure
that the stresses are within the safe
limits.

1.4

Types of loads

All the American code for Pressure Piping

classify the loads mainly into three types . .

1.4.1. Sustained Loads: Those due to

forces present during normal
operation
1.4.2. Occasional Loads: Those present
during rare intervals of operations
1.4.3. Displacement Loads: Those due to
displacement of pipe

1.5

Conditions of Acceptability of Piping System

The Piping Engineer has the following choices

to establish that the required flexibility has been
provided in the piping layout.
1.5.1 As per clause 119.7.1/319.4.1 of the code
ASME B 31.1/B 31.3, no formal analysis is
required in systems which
i)
are duplicates of successfully
operating installations or
replacements.
ii)
can readily be judged adequate
by comparison with previously
analyzed systems.
iii)
satisfy equation specified in
clause 119.7.1(A3)/ 319.4.1 (c)

1.5.2

Analyzing the layout by an approximate

method.

Approximate method shall be applied

only if they are used for the range of
configuration for which adequate
accuracy has been demonstrated.

1.5.3

Carrying out a comprehensive analysis.

i)
ii)
iii)

Analytical
Model test
Chart method

Blower fig.

700
55304

BLOWER

The Piping Specification nominates the code to be

used for various aspects in the Piping System.

Every such code will contain recommendations

and mandatory requirements on the following aspects:
i)
ii)

iii)
iv)

Minimum flexibility requirements for

thermal expansion
Allowable stresses for various piping
materials
Reinforcement requirements of branch
connections
Support criteria

2.2

Magnitude Of Thermal Load

L = . T. L
L = . L

.
.

(1)
(2)

The strain developed in the pipe, , is then calculated

as = L / L=
Internal stress developed due to this strain,
f = E (Hookes Law)
= E
The force required to compress back is
P = Af = AE

where,

A = Area of cross section of pipe,In2 (mm2)

E = Modulus of elasticity of material, psi (Kpa)

P = Compressive force on pipe, lbs (N)

f = Stress developed, psi (Kpa)

L = Axial compression of pipe, In (mm)

L = length of pipe, In (mm)

To evaluate the magnitude of such a force, let us

consider Carbon Steel pipe of 600 mm outside
diameter with 10 mm thickness, operating at a
temperature of 3000C.
Referring to ASME B 31.3, Table C6,
E = 26.85 Msi (1.888 x 104 kg/mm2 )
Referring to Table C1
= 3.625 x l0-3 mm/mm
Area of the pipe
A = Pi / 4 [(600)2 - (580)2] = 18535.4 mm2
P = 18535.4 x 1.888 x 104 x 3.625 x l0-3
= 12,68,563 kg = 1269 tons

STRESS

CYCLE
TIME

ELASTIC
LIMITED

STRESS

STRAIN

24000 psi
b2 b'
b1
b

C'

b3
6000 psi

Expansio

System self sp

Stress

2Sy
Sy

2S y
2S y

-Sy

-2Sy
TIME

ELASTIC SHAKEDOWN (RELAXATION)

Fig. 2.9

2.4

Allowable Stresses

The American piping codes covered under

ASME B 31 subscribe to the failure of the piping
system to the basis the Maximum principal stress
theory. The theory states that the yielding occurs
when the magnitude of any of the three mutually
perpendicular stresses exceeds the yield strength of the
material. Temperature and pressure are the significant
factors governing the stresses created in the piping
systems.

There are other factors that influence the

stress as well. They are:

Wind load
Seismic load
Relief valve forces
Fluid hammer
Settlement
Equipment vibration
Weight of attachments
Weight of contents

All these factors contribute to two distinct

forms of stresses.
The sustained stresses Generated by
Pressure, dead weight of contents and attachments,
which can be expected to be present virtually at all
time of plant operation.

The self-limiting stresses Generated by

thermal effects.

The basic allowable material stress at the hot

(operating/design) temperature (Sh) is defined by the
code as minimum of
As per the ASME B 31.1

i.
ii.

iii.

i.

1/4 of the ultimate tensile strength of the material at

operating temperature
1/4 of the ultimate tensile strength of the material at
room temperature
5/8 of the yield strength of the material at operating
temperature (90% of the yield stress for austenitic
stainless steels)
5/8 of the yield strength of the material at room
temperature (90% of the yield stress for austenitic
stainless steel)
and
100% of the average stress for a 0.01% creep rate per
1000 hrs.

As per ASME B 31.3

1/3 of the ultimate tensile strength of the material
at operating temperature.
1/3 of the ultimate tensile strength of the material
at room temperature.
2/3 of the yield strength of the material at
operating temperature (90% of the yield stress for
austenitic stainless steel)
2/3 of the yield strength of material at room
temperature (90 % of the yield stress for austenitic
stainless steel) 100% of the average stress for a
0.01% creep rate at 1000 hrs
67% of the average stress for rupture after
1,00,000 hrs 80% of the minimum stress for rupture
after 1,00,000 hrs.

2.4.2

TIME DEPENDENT STRESSES

Time dependent allowable stress is usually

related to the creep rupture strength at high
temperature. At temperature above 1/3 of the
melting point, most metals will exhibit creep in
standard tensile test, if the load is kept constant
the specimen will continue to deform with time.
Under constant load, the rate of creep strain will
decrease initially to a steady state and later will
increase rapidly until it fails due to creep rupture.

The code uses an allowable stress, which is

the smaller of time dependent, and time independent
allowable stress. The time dependent allowable stress
is the smallest of 67% of the average stress to cause
creep rupture in 1,00,000 hrs, 80% of the minimum
stress to cause rupture in 1,00,000 hrs or 100% of the
stress to give 0.01% of creep rate per hour (Ref.
2.4.1)

The self limiting stress in piping system are

essentially cyclic and the initial hot stresses, if they are
of sufficient magnitude, will decrease with time because
of the plastic strains and will reappear as a stress of
reverse direction when the pipe cools. This phenomenon
forms the basic difference between the self-limiting
stresses and the sustained stresses.

The degree of self-springing, as explained

earlier, will depend on the magnitude of the initial hot
stresses and the temperature, so that while the hot
stresses will gradually decrease with time, the sum of
hot and cold stresses will stay the same. This sum is
called the EXPANSION STRESS RANGE.
This
leads us to the selection of an ALLOWABLE
EXPANSION STRESS RANGE.

Self-springing occurs only when the system is

subjected to higher temperatures. For the expected strain
(expected expansion per unit length), if the modulus of
elasticity at this high temperature is used to back
calculate stress, the stress value will be lower than when
it is calculated using modulus of elasticity value at lower
temperature (cold condition). That is, stress value is
higher when material properties in cold condition are
used. This provides a built in safety in design. Hence the
stresses are calculated using the cold modulus of
elasticity. This is a very important point to note. Actual
stresses under hot condition would be less than the
calculated stresses.

There are other failure modes that could

affect the piping system. They include buckling,
stress corrosion and brittle fracture. These topics are
not correctly considered in the piping code. The
effects of these must be considered by the Piping
Engineer while selecting the materials or restraining
the piping system.

2.4.3

ALLOWABLE STRESS RANGE

The failure modes that the piping code addresses are

excessive plastic deformation or bursting; plastic instability
or incremental collapse due to cycling in the plastic range
and fatigue which may be developed in a system as its
temperature is raised from the lowest to the highest that it
will experience in service or when it is shut down. Each of
this failure, modes is caused by a different type of stress and
loading. However Fatigue failure is recognized by the code
as the most likely mode of failure of the component and
place the limit on the maximum stress which may be
developed in a system as temperature is raised from lowest
to highest that will experience in service or when it is shut
down.

For materials below the creep ranges, the allowable

stresses are 62.5% of the yield stress, so that a conservative
estimate of the limit of the bending stress at which plastic
flow starts at an elevated temperature is 1.6 (100/62.5) times
the allowable stress and by the same reasoning, 1.6 Sc will
be the stress at which flow would take place at the minimum
temperature. Hence the sum of these stresses represents the
MAXIMUM STRESS RANGE to which the system would
be subjected to, without the flow occurring in either hot or
cold condition.
Therefore,
Smax = 1.6 Sc + 1.6 Sh = 1.6 (Sc + Sh)
But the American design codes ASME B 31.1 and B 31.3
limit the stress range to 78% of the yield stress which gives
a total stress range of
S Allowable = 1.6 x 0.78 (Sc + Sh)
= 1.25 (Sc + Sh)

From this total stress range 1 Sh is reserved for the

longitudinal stresses developed due to loading such as
pressure, weight and other sustained loading, giving
the allowable stress range for flexibility as
S Allowable = 1.25 Sc + 0.25 Sh
The above value does not consider the excessive cyclic
conditions.

The code allows it by multiplying by a stress

range reduction factor. Accordingly,ASME B 31.1 in
clause 102.3.2(c) and ASME 31.3 in clause 302.3.5
specify the Allowable Expansion Stress Range as :
[The value of Sc and Sh are available in Table A1 of the
Code]
f = Stress range reduction factor for displacement cycle
conditions for the total number of cycles over the
expected life

The factor f has a value of 1.0 for situation where

total number of cycles is 7000 or less. This represents one
cycle per day for nearly 20 years, which is a common
design parameter. Further, if we look at endurance curve for
carbon steel and low alloy steel available in the ASME
Section VIII Division 2, Pressure Vessel Code, it can be
seen that at some point in the vicinity of 7000 cycles, the Sc
+ Sh limitation intersects the fatigue curve.
The code gives the value of f in the table 302.3.5 (B 31.3)
and 102.3.2 (c) (B 31.1) as follows:

Stress Range Reduction Factor f

Cycles N

7,000 or less

Factor f

1.0

over 7,000 to 14,000

0.9

over 14,000 to 22,000

0.8

over 22,000 to 45,000

0.7

over 45,000 to 1,00,000

0.6

over 1,00,000 to 2,00,000

0.5

over 2,00,000 to 7,00,000

0.4

over 7,00,000 to 20,00,000

0.3

This applies essentially to non corroded piping. Corrosion

can decrease the cycle life. Therefore, corrosion resistant
material should be considered where large number of stress
cycle is anticipated.

A pipe supplies Dowtherm to the limpet of a

reactor, which is operated on a batch process with a 4
hour cycle every 24 hours.
The Dowtherm
temperature is 315 0C (6000F) and pipe material is
ASTM A 106 Gr. B. Design life of plant considered 20
years.
A llowable

stress

at ambient

Allowable
stress at Max.
S h = 17,300
psi
Number

of cycles

The stress range

hence,
S A = f ( 1.25 S
= 0.7 ( 1.25

= 20527

metal

= 20,000
temp.

24
365 x 20
4
= 43,800
(total)
reduction
factor
= 0.7
=

+ 0.25

20,000

psi (1443

)
17,300)

+ 0.25

Kg./cm

psi

2.4.4

Effect of sustained loads on fatigue strength

If the alternating stress is plotted against the

cycle to failure, it can be seen that the mean stress has
an effect on the endurance strength of the material. As
the mean stress increases, the maximum permissible
absolute stress (Sa + Sm) increases, while the
permissible alternating stress decreases. The relation
between the allowable alternative stress and the
average stress follows the Soderberg line, which
correlates fairly well with test data of ductile
materials.

Alternating Stress Axis

Design Limit

Sa from endurance curve for

completely alternating stress

Compressive SY

Tensile SY
Mean Stress Axis

The equation for the Soderberg line is

Sa (Allowed) = Sa(for R=1) x (1-Sm/SYield)
where, R = Smin / Smax
Sa = Smax - Smin / 2
Sm = Smax + Smin / 2

1. Centrifugal pumps
- API 610
2. Positive displacement pumps - API 676
3. Centrifugal compressors
- API 617/NEMA
SM 23
4. Reciprocating compressors - API 618
5. Steam turbines
- NEMA SM 23
6. Air cooled heat exchangers - API 661
7. Shell and tube heat exchangers- Manf.Specific.
8. Fired heaters
- Manf. Specific.
9. For other static equipment such as Reactors, vessels
and tanks interaction with the fabrication engineer is
required to establish that the local stress developed
due to nozzle loadings are within the acceptable
limits.

Table 3.1: NOZZLE LOADING AS PER API 610

NORMAL SIZE OF NOZZLE FLANGE IN INCHES

FORCE/MOMENT
2

10

12

14

16

Each Top Nozzle

FX

160

240

320

560

850

1200

1500

1600

1900

FY

200

300

400

700

1100

1500

1800

2000

2300

FZ

130

200

260

460

700

1000

1200

1300

1500

FR

290

430

570

1010

1560

2200

2600

2900

3300

FX

160

240

320

560

850

1200

1500

1600

1900

FY

130

200

260

460

700

1000

1200

1300

1500

FZ

200

300

400

700

1100

1500

1800

2000

2300

FR

290

430

570

1010

1560

2200

2600

2900

3300

FX

200

300

400

700

1100

1500

1800

2000

2300

FY

130

200

260

460

700

1000

1200

1300

1500

FZ

160

240

320

560

850

1200

1500

1600

1900

FR

290

430

570

1010

1560

2200

2600

2900

3300

MX

340

700

980

1700

2600

3700

4500

4700

5400

MY

260

530

740

1300

1900

2800

3400

3500

4000

MZ

170

350

500

870

1300

1800

2200

2300

2700

MR

460

950

1330

2310

3500

5000

6100

6300

7200

Each Side Nozzle

Each End Nozzle

Each Nozzle

F is Force in pounds ; M is Moment in foot pounds ; R is the resultant ; X, Y, Z : Orientation of

Nozzle Loads. API 610 specifies that the pump casing should be designed to withstand double
the forces and moments as above. The piping configuration that produces loads and moments
outside the above range is also acceptable provided the conditions as specified in Appendix F of
the above code are satisfied. For direction of forces and moments see Fig. 3.1

3.2

Positive Displacement Pumps

The American Petroleum Institute Standard 676

specifies in clause 2.4.7 the limiting values for the
Rotary Positive Displacement Pumps with Alloy Steel or
Steel Castings at inlet and outlet nozzles as :
Fx
Fy
Fz

=
=
=

75 D lbs
75 D lbs
75 D lbs

Mx
My
Mz

=
=
=

125 D ft.lbs
125 D ft lbs
125 D ft lbs

where D is the nominal diameter of nozzle in inches.

3.3

Centrifugal Compressors

Clause 2.5.1 of API 617 Centrifugal Compressors

for General Refinery Service specifies that the
compressors shall be designed to withstand external
forces and moments on each nozzle at least 1.85 times
the value calculated in accordance with NEMA - SM
23.
The allowable forces and moments are calculated as
per NEMA-SM 23 as below.
The forces and moments acting on compressor(s) due to
the inlet pipe and discharge pipe connections are :

 The total resultant force and total resultant moment

imposed on the Compressor at any connection must not
exceed the following :
3F + M 925D or

925 D - M
3

F = Resultant force (lbs.) including pressure

forces where unrestrain ed expansion

joints are used at the connection - except

on vertica l connection s covered under 3.
M = Resultant Moment (ft. lbs.)
D = Pipe size of the connection (IPS) in
inches upto eight (8) inches in diameter.
For sizes greater th an this, use a value of D
16 + IPS
equal to
inches.
3

2.
The combined resultant of the forces and
moments of the inlet side and discharge connections
resolved at the centre line of the discharge connection
must not exceed the following two conditions.
These resultants must not exceed

462Dc -Mc
Fc =
2

F c = Combined

resultant

discharge forces in pounds.

= Combined resultant of inlet side and
discharge moments
forces in ft lbs.

of inlet side and

= Diameter
opening

resulting

from

(in inches) of a circular

equal to the total area of

inlet side and discharge opening

a value of nine (9) inches
in diameter.
value of
D

For values

(18 + Equivalent
3

upto

beyond this use

Diameter)

inches

The components of these resultants shall not exceed

Fy = 231 Dc

My = 231 Dc

Fz = 185 Dc
Fx = 92.5 Dc

Mz
Mx

= 231 Dc
= 462 Dc

where,

Fy = Vertical component of Fc
Fz = Horizontal components of Fc
at right angles to compressor shaft
Fx = Horizontal component of Fc
Parallel to compressor shaft
Mx = Component of Mc in a vertical plane at
right angles to compressor shaft
My = Component of Mc in a horizontal plane
Mz = Component of Mc in a vertical
plane parallel to the compressor shaft

3. For installation of compressors with vertical

connections with unrestrained expansion joints, an
additional amount of force caused by pressure loading
is allowed. (The additional force referred to is
perpendicular to the face of the flange and is deemed to
act at its center). For this type of application, calculate
the vertical force component of the vertical connection
excluding pressure loading. Compare with value of 1/5
of the pressure loading. Use the larger of these two
vertical force components on connections in making
calculations outlined in (1) and (2).The force caused by
the pressure loading on the vertical connection is
allowed in addition to the values established in the
above up to a maximum value of vertical force (in
pounds) on the connection (including pressure loading)
of 15 times the connection area in square inches.

4. These values of allowable forces and moments

pertain to the compressor structure only.
They do not pertain to the forces and moments in the
connecting piping flanges and flange bolting which
should not exceed the allowable stress as defined by
applicable codes and explanatory notes.
Forces on inlet connections are to be transferred along
with moments to discharge connection to analyze the
compressor for resultant forces and moments. But, the
transfer of force will generate additional transfer
moments, which are added to the total of moments to
give resultant moments.

0.141

1606

3250

1626

2250

0.037

1029

1516

2780

28"X20"
ECC RED

1264

6150

4549

MF.EL.13777

v- x

1771

1606

3124

DESIGN CONDITIONS
SUCTION PIPING: DESIGN PRESSURE 0KG/CM2G, DESIGN TEMP:350C
1.OC:ASTM A106 G.B, THK: SCH: STD
DISCH PIPING: DESIGN PRESSURE 23.C KG/CM2G, DESIGN TEMP:55OC
MOC: ASTM AIO6 -B , THK : SCH:STD (0.375")
NOTE: 1. NO COLD SPRING SHALL BE APPLIED
2. FRICTION EFFECT AT SUPPORT TO BE IGNORED
3. INSTALLATION TEMP - 300C

CO
MP

CO
MP

ALLOWABLE FORCES AND MOMENTS ON

COMPRESSOR
DESIGN CONDITION
Installation Temperature
Suction Temperature
Discharge Temperature
Inlet Piping
Fx = -11 kg
Fy = 266 kg
Fz = 52 kg
Mx = 292 kg.m
My = 104 kg.m
Mz = 94 kg.m

:
:
:

300C
350C
550C

+Fy

+My

+Mx

Fr = Fx2 + Fy2 + Fz2

= (-11)2 + (266)2 + 522 = 271.26kg = 597Ibs.

+Fz

+Mz

+Fx

Mr = 2922 +1042 + 942 = 323.91kgM = 2337ftIbs.

925D - M
Fall=
3
16+ IPS 16+ 20
=
=12"
Where D =
3
3
925x12- 2337
\Fall=
= 2921Ibs
3
> Fr

Hence resultant force at compressor inlet is within safe limits

Discharge Piping
Fx = -34 kg
Fy = 274 kg
Fz = 133 kg
Mx = 55 kg.m
My = 184 kg.m
Mz = 50 kg.m

Fr = Fx 2 + Fy 2 + Fz 2
= ( -34 ) 2 + 274 2 + 133 2 = 306 .47 kg = 674 Ibs.
Mr = 55 2 + 182 2 + 50 2 = 196 .56 kgM = 1419 ftIbs .
925 D - M
Fall =
3
16 + IPS 16 + 20
=
= 12"
Where D =
3
3
925 x12 - 1419
\ Fall =
= 3227 Ibs
3
> Fr

Hence resultant force at compressor Discharge is within safe limits

D
591

SUCTION
S

COMPRESSOR
DETAILS

DISCHARGE
1626

D
S

SUCTION

432

1626

274KG

266KG

DS

S (591,-1626,-432)

+Y

+Z

+X

Force at the inlet connection are to be transferred along

with moments to discharge side to analyze for resultant
forces and moments. But the transfer of forced will give
additional transfer moments which are added to the total
to give resultant moments.
Moment vector at any point is given by the cross
product of the distance vector with force vector

Here

ie. Mr =

D x F

0.591 i - 1.626 j - 0.432 k

-11 i - 266 j + 52 k

0.591 -1.626 -0.432

-11
=

+266 +52

30.36 i + 25.98 j + 139.32 k

Hence,
MTX

30.36 KG.M

MTY

25.98 KG.M

MTZ

139.32 KG.M

TOTAL FORCE AND MOMENTS AT

COMPRESSOR DISCHARGE
CASE

Fx(KG)

Fy(KG)

Fz(KG)

Mx(KG.M)

My(KG.M)

Mz(KG.M)

Suction

-11

266

52

292

104

94

Disch

-34

274

133

133

182

50

Transfer

120

26

139

TOTAL

-45

540

185

455

312

283

Fc =

Fx

+ Fy

= 45 2 + 540
= 1260 Ibs

Mc =

+ My

Mx

+ Fz

+ 185
2

= 572 . 58 KG

+ Mz

= 455 2 + 312 2 + 283 2 = 620 . 05 KG . M

= 4474 ftIbs
462 DC - Mc
=
Fc All
2
18 + Deq
where Dc =
3
Deq = Equivalent DIA. Of a circular opening equal
to total area of inlet and discharge

InletPipe = 20" SCH 20

= 20"0D x 0.375"THK

2
Area= x19.25
4
= 291.04 IH 2
OutletPipe = 20" SCH 20
2
Area = 291.04in

Total Area = 582.08in

p
2
2
Deq = 582.08in
4

Deq =

582.08 x 4

= 27.22in
+
\Dc = 18 27.22 = 15.07in
3
462Dc - Mc
Fc all =
2
= 462x15.07 4474
2
=1244.17 Ibs

Fc is marginally higher than

Fc all.
Approx.1.2%
Hence Forces (Total) on
compressor can be accepted

Individual component check

Allowable

Remarks

Fy = 540 kg

231DC = 1582 kg

Ok

Fx = 185 kg

92.5DC = 634 kg

Ok

Fz = -45 kg

185 DC = 1267 kg

Ok

My = 312 kgm 231 DC = 482 kg.m

Ok

Mx = 283 kgm 462 DC = 964 kg.m

Ok

Mz = 455 kgm 231 DC = 482 kg.m

Ok

Conclusion
The routing is acceptable as the values of forces
and moments are within limits except the combined
resultant force which is only marginally higher.

3.4

Steam Turbines

NEMA SM 23 requires that the forces and

moments acting on steam turbines due to the steam inlet,
extraction, and exhaust connections should be evaluated
by simple set of force/moment calculation similar to
centrifugal compressors. These computations shall be
done as below.

1. The total resultant force and total resultant moment

imposed on the turbine at any connection should not
exceed the values calculated as per the following
equation.

500D - M
3 F + M 500 D or F 3
where,
F = Resultant force (lbs) including pressure forces
where unrestrained expansion joints are used at the
connection except on vertical exhausts. Full vacuum
load is allowed on vertical down exhaust flanges.
F = Fx2 + Fy2 + Fz2
M=

Mx2 + My2 + Mz2

D = Nominal pipe size of the connection in inches up to

8 inches in diameter.

For sizes greater than this, use a value of

(16 + IPS) Inches
D (in inches) =
3
1. The combined resultants of the forces and moments
of the inlet, extraction, and exhaust connections, resolved
at the centerline of the exhaust connection should not
exceed the following two conditions.
These resultants shall not exceed :
250 Dc - Mc
Fc =
2

where,
Fc = Combined resultant of inlet, extraction, and
exhaust forces, in lbs.
Mc = Combined resultant of inlet, extraction, and
exhaust moments, and moments resulting from
forces, in ft lbs.
Dc = Diameter (in inches) of a circular opening equal
to the total areas of the inlet, extraction, and
exhaust openings up to a value of nine inches in
diameter.
For values beyond this, use a value of Dc (in inches)
equal to :
(18 + Equivalent diameter in inches)

The components of these resultants should not

exceed :
Fx = 50 Dc
Mx = 250 Dc
Fy = 125Dc
My = 125 Dc
Fz = 100 Dc
Mz = 125 Dc
The components are as follows :
Fx = Horizontal components of Fc parallel to the
turbine shaft.
Fy = Vertical component of Fc
Fz = Horizontal component of Fc at right angles
to the turbine shaft.
Mx = Component of Mc around the horizontal
axis parallel to the turbine shaft
My = Component of Mc around the vertical axis
Mz = Component of Mc around the horizontal
axis at right angles to the turbine shaft.

3. For installation of turbines with a vertical exhaust and an

unrestrained expansion joint at the exhaust, an additional
amount of force caused by pressure loading is allowed. (This
additional force is perpendicular to the face of the exhaust
flange and is deemed to act at its centre), For this type of
application, calculate the vertical force component on the
exhaust connection excluding pressure loading. Compare this
with one sixth of the pressure loading on the exhaust.

Use the larger of these two numbers for vertical

force component on the exhaust connection in making
calculations outlined in 1 and The force caused by the
pressure loading on the exhaust is allowed in addition to
the values established by the foregoing up to a
maximum value of vertical force in pounds on the
exhaust connection (including pressure loading) of 15
times the exhaust area in square inches.
4. These values of allowable force and moment pertain
to the turbine structure only. They do not pertain to the
forces and moments in the connecting piping, flange,
and flange bolting, which should not exceed the
allowable stress as defined by applicable codes and
explanatory notes.

3.6 Air Cooled Heat Exchangers

The American Petroleum Institute Standard 661
for Air Cooled Heat Exchangers for General Refinery
Services covers the allowable loads on the vertical,
collinear nozzles found in most single multibundled aircooled heat Exchangers. API 661 has the following two
requirements.

3.6.1

Each nozzle in corroded condition shall be

capable of withstanding the following moments
and forces.

Nozzle size
NB In

Forces in lbs

Moments in ft lbs

Fx

Fy

Fz

Mx

My

Mz

100

150

100

50

70

50

150

200

150

70

120

70

150

250

300

200

300

200

500

400

500

400

600

400

750

750

600

800

1500

1050

1200

2000

950

1100

3000

1500

10

1500

2000

1000

1250

3000

2000

12

2000

2000

1250

1500

3000

2500

14

2500

2500

1500

1750

3500

3000

Table 3.2: Nozzle loading as per API 661

3.7 Shell & Tube Type Heat Exchangers

The designer has to set the limiting values or

to check the vessel connections for the nozzle loading
imposed by the connected piping.The rough guide
generally followed is :Resultant Maximum Force 200 lb./in NB of nozzle
Bending Moment Equivalent to bending stress in
standard schedule pipe between 4000 to 5000lbs./in2

3.8

Fired Heaters

The limiting values for forces and moments

should be laid down by the manufacturer. Restrictions
are applied on nozzle rotations also in this case to take
care of the clearances between the tube and refractory
lining. The thumb rule used is :
Forces = 200 to 300 lb/in. nominal bore of nozzle
Moments - Equivalent to Sh/4
Nozzle Rotation - From 1/20 to 10

Table 3.3: Recommended Nozzle loading in Static Equipment

Nozzle
size NB
inch

Axial force

Bending moment each

direction
lbs.

Twisting moment

lbs

Shear force each

direction
Lbs.

900

400

1300

1300

1100

500

2000

2000

1650

750

4300

4300

2200

1000

8000

8000

10

2750

1250

14500

12300

12

3300

1500

21000

17500

14

3850

1750

25000

21000

16

4400

2000

29000

27000

18

4950

2250

32500

32500

20

5500

2500

36000

36000

24

6600

3000

44000

44000

ft-lbs

The local stress intensity at the nozzle connection due

to attachment of piping can be computed using the
welding research council bulletin 107 setting the
limitations as.

3.9.1 The local sustained stress intensity at the nozzle

connection should be less than 0.5 sm
3.9.2

The sum of local sustained stress intensity and the

local expansion stress intensity at the nozzle
connection must be less than 2 sm

DESIGN CASES TO BE CONSIDERED

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

NORMAL OPERATION
STEAM OUT
START-UP
CRASH SHUT-DOWN
ANY OTHER NEAR GOVERNING
CONDITIONS

4.0

Data required for flexibility calculations

The following data will be required for the

flexibility calculations if it is carried out manually or
by the use of software. It is therefore prudent to have
this ready before starting.
The direction of coordinates are fixed as below:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.

Code of Practice
Basic Material of Construction of Pipe
Ambient / Installation temperature
Number of Thermal Cases
Flexibility Temperature (See Note)
Design Pressure
Outside diameter of Pipe
Type of construction of pipe
Nominal Thickness of Pipe
Manufacturing tolerance
Corrosion allowance
Pipe Weight
Insulation Weight
Specific Gravity of Contents
Youngs Modulus at Ambient/Installation Temperature
Youngs Modulus at Flexibility Temperature
Thermal Expansion at Flexibility Temperature
Allowable stress at Ambient/ Installation temperature
Allowable stress at flexibility temperature
Bend radius and type of bend
Branch connection type
Weight of attachments - Valves and Specialties
Terminal movements with directions

CRITERIA

I.

1.
2.
3.

No specific thumb rule for the selection of pipelines

for flexibility analysis. The following guide lines can
be considered.
C. S Lines 2(50) NB having temperature
difference of 100C for hot & 60C for cold.
C S Lines 8(200) NB and S. S. lines 2(50) NB
having temperature difference 50C.
All lines of strain sensitive equipment
3.1>2 (50)NB < 8(200)NB - 50C difference
3.2>10 (250)NB

SE as close as possible to SA.

No safety factor. On SA & acceptable nozzle loading.
Weightage
Accepted Flex. Analysis 65%
Wt. Analysis 15%
Support selection 5%
Support Drawings/Vendor drawing Approvals 15%

5.1 Check As Per Clause 119.7.1/ 319.4.1 of the Code

Clause 119.7.1(A3)/ 319.4.1(c) specifies that no
formal analysis is required in systems which are of
uniform size, have no more than two points of fixation,
no intermediate restraints and fall within the empirical
equation.
DY
K1
( L -U )
where,
D = The outside diameter of pipe in inch (or mm)
Y = Resultant of total displacement strains in inch
(or mm) to be absorbed by the Piping system.
L = Developed length between the anchors in ft.or (m)
U = Anchor distance, straight line between anchors in
ft. or(m)
K1= 0.03 for USCS units.
= 208.3 for SI units.
2

For example, consider the following pipe routing

Pipe

6" (150 mm NB) Sch. 40

carbon steel to ASTM A106 Gr.
Design Temperature 400 F (2040C)

Step 1:

U=

x +y +z

= 35 2 + 30 2 + 45 2 =64.42'

To establish the anchor to anchor distance U

Total length in X direction =

35

Total length in Y direction =

30

Total length in Z direction =

=

25 + 20
45

Step 2
To determine value of L.
L = x + y + z = 35 + 30 + 45 = 110 ft.
Step 3
To calculate resultant total displacement Y
From Appendix C, ASME B 31.3
Linear Expansion between 70F and 400F.
e = 2.7"
x
y
z

/ 100

2.7 35
100
2.7 30
=
100
2.7 45
=
100
=

Y =
=

x
0.945

= 1.739"

ft.
= 0.945"
= 0.810"
= 1.215"

+ y
2

+ z

+ 0.810

2
2

+ 1.215

Step 4
DY
(L - U )2
6.625 1.739
=
(110 - 64.42 )2
= 0.0055
0.03
since K < K 1 the configurat ion is safe

K=

Please note that no general proof can be offered that

this equation will yield accurate and conservative
results. It is not applicable to systems used under
severe cyclic conditions. There is no assurance that
the terminal reactions will be acceptably low, even if
the system satisfies the above equation.

As per Elastic Theory,

If L is length of BC in ft. ( l = 12 L)
144 PL 3
EI
Hence,
EI
P =
above
144 L 3
Maximum bending
= M ft. lbs.

Maximum

bending

moment

M Y 12
stress f =
lbs/ in
I

OD of pipe
2
12 M Y
f =
I
= 12 P L D
I 2 2
Y=

EI
Substituti ng P =
144 L 3
EI L D
12
f =
I 144 L 3 2 2
DE
i.e. f =
48 L 2
L =

DE
48 f

at B or C = P L/2
2

e.g. :- In the previous layout if we restrict the stress at

16,000 psi and consider modulus of elasticity of carbon
steel as 29.5 x 106 psi and assume the pipe size as 6" NB
(6.625" OD)
Expansion of piping between T1 and T2,

= 0 .87" (22 mm)

L=
=

DE
48f
0 . 87
6.625 29500000
16000 48

= 14 .88 ft.(4.54

m)

This indicates that the length BC should not be less

than 6.5 m.

In Fig.5.5 if the vessels are arranged in such a way

that AB and BC are equal and 10 M each, then the
stress developed can be calculated as;
l = AB = BC = 10 m = 394 inches
E = 29.5 x 106 lbs/ in2
R = 6.625/2 inches
= 1.73/2 inches
6 x 29.5 x l06 x 6.625 x 1.73
SE

=
=

(394)2 x
3267 psi

2 x 2

We can also calculate the stress developed in such a

system of known dimensions of leg BC by the same
method.

= Pl 3 / 12 EI
hence , P = 12 EI / l 3
M = PI / 2 = 12 EI / l 3 2
F = M / Z = 6 EI / l 2 Z
R = I /Z
Z = I/R
Solving for f(S E ) = 6 ER / l 2
Where; R = Outer radius of pipe, inches
I = Moment of inertia of cross section, in4
E = Modulus of elasticity,lbs/in2
l = Length, inches

Quick Check Method

Min.

Min L =

h = 0.0025D LT
2

400(h)
DT

ft

ft.

Where ;
Do = Outside diameter in inch. (to nearest )
T = Temp. difference F
(Design Temp. Instln. Temp.)

Check previous Layout

D = 6 . 625 " = 7 "

L = 50 '
T = 350 - 70 = 280
o

h = 0 .0025 x 7 x 50 x 280
= 15 . 7 '

5.3

Piping Elements - Their Individual Effects

STRAIGHT PIPE : FLEXIBILITY IN TORSION

If a bending moment M is applied to the end of a straight

piece of pipe, it behaves as a uniform beam and exhibits
change of slope from end to end, as given by the
expression.

q = ML / EI
Where,

q = Angle, radians
M = Bending Moment, in lbs (mm - N)
E = Youngs Modulus, lbs / in2 (Kpa)
I = Moment of Inertia, mm4
L = Length, inches (mm)

Fig. 5.8

If the same pipe is subjected to a constant twisting

moment, the rotation of one end relative to the other
end is given by :
TL
=
GJ
where,
= Angleof twist,radians
T = Torsionmoment,in - lbs(mm- N)
L = Length,inches(mm)
G = Modulusof rigidity,lbs/in2(KPa)
J = Polarmomentof inertia,in4( mm4)

It can be shown that for metals

G = E / 2.6 and
J = 2 x I for circular cross section
Hence,
TxL
q =
E / 2.6 x 2I

TL

= 1.3
EI

This shows that flexibility can be provided in a layout

by permitting leg to bend or twist. This alone is a rare
means of obtaining flexibility. But influences the
engineer to select alternate route. Also it should be
ensured that this does not add unacceptable forces and
moments.

b
a

c
d

q=

ML
EI

Fig. 5.10

Fig. 5.11

Fig. 5.12

Fig. 5.14 Circumferential Stress in Pipe wall

Fig. 5.15
Using this parameter code indicates that
The flexibility factor = k = 1.65/h
Inplane S.I.F.= ii = 0.9/h2/3
Outplane S.I.F.= Io= 0.75/h2/3
Flexibility Characteristic h = TR1 / (r2)2
T=Wall thickness, inches (mm)
R1=Mean Radius of bend, inches (mm)
r2=Mean radius of pipe wall, inches (mm)

When any problem is analyzed, the following

considerations are made:

a)

The Flexibility Factor applies to bending in

any plane.

b)

The stress intensification factor is greater for

"inplane" bending than for "outplane
ending. ASME B 31.3 permits the use of
inplane SIF for any plane whereas B 31. 1
does not separate out these two.

FLEXIBILITY FACTOR K AND STRESS

INTENSIFICATION FACTOR
DESCRIPTION

FLEXIBILITY
FACTOR

STRESS INTENSIFICATION
FACTOR
OUT PLANE

FLEXIBILITY
CHARACTERISTIC

IN-PLANE

Welding
elbow

1.65
l

0.75
l 2/3

0.9
l 2/3

Closely spaced
mix bend

1.52
l 5/6

0.9
l 2/3

0.9
l 2/3

TR1
(r)2 2
cot q Ts
2
(r) 2

Single mitre
bend

1.52
l 5/6

0.9
l 2/3

0.9
l 2/3

1+cot Q T
2
r2

Welding Tee
as per ANSI
B 16.9

0.9
l 2/3

3/4 i.o + 1/4

Reinforced fab
Tee with pad
or saddle

0.9
l 2/3

3/4 i.o + 1/4

( T + 1/2 t)r
T 3/2 r2

Unreinforced
Fabricated
Tee

0.9
l 2/3

3/4 i.o + 1/4

T
r2

Extruded
Welding Tee

0.9
l 2/3

3/4 i.o + 1/4

Welding in
contour insert

0.9
l 2/3

3/4 i.o + 1/4

4.4 T
r2

Branch welding
on fitting

0.9
l 2/3

0.9
l 2/3

3.3 T
r2

4.4

T
r2

(1 + r x T
r 22 r

5/2

Mitre Bends

In case of Mitre Bends an equivalent bend radius is

used in the equation to calculate 'h'. The equivalent
bend radius (Re) is estimated by
Re = r (1 + 0 .5 s / r cot q ) for closed spaced mitres
2

Re

= r 2 ( 1 + cot q )

for widely spaced mitres

where,
s = mitre spacing at centerline, inches (mm)
q = one half of angle between cuts
r2 = mean radius of pipe, inches (mm)

5.3.3

Tees

The unreinforced fabricated tee is modelled

using same formula for widely spaced miter bend with
single miter i.e. half angle of 45o. This produces the
flexibility characteristic of
h = T / r2
For buttweld tees, Markyl adapted bend equation with
equivalent radius (Re) and equivalent thickness (Te).

h = c(Te Re/ r2 2 )

where,
c = ratio of tee to pipe section modulii.
= (Te/T)3/2 as recommended by ARC Markyl.
Te = Equivalent pipe wall thickness inches (mm)
= 1.60T as recommended by ARC Markyl
Re = Equivalent bending radius inches (mm)
= 1.35 r2 as recommended by ARC Markyl
Substituting these values in the expression
for h
2
h = ( Te / T ) 3 / 2 ( Te 1 . 35 r / r 2 )

h = 4 .4 T / r2

5.3.4 FLANGES
For flanges also the flexibility factor is 1 and the
various types of flanges are considered to have the
following Stress Intensification Factors.

S I F for Flanges:
Weld neck flange
Slip-on flange
Socket weld flange
Lap joint flange
Threaded flange

1.0
1.2
1.3
1.6
2.3

The flange when attached to the bend exerts a severe

restraint to the flattening of the cross section due to
its heavy construction. Hence attachment of the
flange to an elbow or a mitre bend reduces the
flexibility as well as the stress intensification factor.
Flange at both ends of the elbow reduces these factors
further.
ASME B 31.3 indicates these correction (reduction)
factor as:
C1
=
h1/6 for one end flanged

C1

h1/3 for both ends flanged

Fig. 5.16

5.3.7 EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON SIF AND

FLEXIBILITY FACTOR
In large diameter thin walled elbows and bends,
pressure can significantly affect the Flexibility Factor `k
and Stress Intensification Factor `i. Hence the correction
factor as below should be applied on the values available
from the table.
1/3
Divide k by
7/3
P r2
1 + 6

E T

R1

r2

Divide i by
2/3
5/2

P r2 R 1

1 + 3.25

E T r2

Where;

T=Nominal wall thicnkess of fitting, inches (mm)

r =Meanradius of matching end, inches (mm)
P =Gauge pressure, psi (KPa)
E=Modulus of Elasticity, psi (KPa)
R =Bend radius, inches (mm)
2

This stiffening effect of pressure on bends are not

considered in ASME B 31.1.

6.0 CODE STRESS EQUATIONS

6.1

ASME B 31.1

ASME B 31.1 specifies under clause 104.8 that

to validate a design under the rules of this clause, the
complete piping system must be analyzed between
anchors for the effects of thermal expansion, weight,
other sustained loads and other occasional loads.

6.1.1

STRESS DUE TO SUSTAINED LOADS

The effects of pressure, weight and other

sustained mechanical load must meet the requirements of
the following equation.
P Do
0.75 i MA
SL =
+
Sh in USCS units
4 tn
Z
P Do
SL =

1000(0.75 i) MA
+

4 tn

Sh in SI units

Where;
SL = Sum of the longitudinal stresses due to
pressure, weight and other sustained loads,
psi (KPa)
i = Stress intensification factor
(ref. Appendix D-1)
The product 0.75i shall never be taken as less than 1.
MA= resultant moment due to weight and
sustained loads, in-lb (mm N)
2
2
=
+ 2+

Z = Section Modulus, in3 (mm3)

tn = Nominal Thickness, in (mm)
Sh = Basic allowable stress at the operating temp.,
psi (KPa)

6.1.2 THERMAL EXPANSION STRESS RANGE

The effects of thermal expansion must meet the

requirements of the following equation.
i Mc
SE =

SA + f (Sh SL)

In USCS units

Z
1000 i Mc
SE =
Z

SA + f (Sh SL) In SI units

Where,
SE = Expansion stress range psi (KPa)
Mc = Range of resultant moments due to thermal
expansion, in- lb (mm N)
=

2
x

+M

2
y

+ M

2
z

SA = Allowable stress range (Ref 2.4.3 above) psi

(KPa)

6.1.3 STRESS DUE TO OCCASIONAL LOADS.

The effects of pressure, weights, other sustained loads

and occasional loads including earthquake must meet the
requirements of the following equation.
P Do
+
4 tn
P Do

0.75 i MA
+
Z

1000(0.75 i) MA
+

4 tn

0.75 i MB
KSh in USCS units.
Z
1000(0.75 i) MB
+

KSh in SI units.

Where,
10%

K = 1.15 for occasional loads acting less than

of any 24 hr. operating period.
K = 1.2 for occasional loads acting less than 1%
of any 24 hr. operating period.
MB = Resultant moment loading on cross section
due to occasional loads.
If calculation of moments due to earthquake is
required, use only one half of the earthquake
moment range. Effect of anchor displacement
due to earthquake may be excluded from the
equation if they are covered in Thermal
Expansion stress range calculation.

6.2

ASME B 31.3

6.2.1 ASME B 31.3 does not provide an explicit

equation for sustained stress calculation, but requires
that Piping Engineer should compute the longitudinal
stresses due to weight, pressure and other sustained
loading and ensure that these do not exceed Sh. The
thickness of pipe used in calculating SL shall be the
nominal thickness less the erosion and corrosion
allowance. This is calculated by looking at Clause
302.3.5 (c)

(iiM i) 2 + (ioM o) 2

Fax
SL =

Am

Am

Sh in USCS units

4t

1000 [(iiMi) 2+ (ioM o)2] 1/2

Fax
SL =

Pdo

Sh in SI units

where,
SL = Sum of longitudinal stress due to pressure
weight and other sustained loading, psi KPa)
Fax = Axial force due to sustained (primary)
loading, lbs (kg)
Am = Metal cross sectional area, in2 (mm2)
Mi = In-plane bending moment due to sustained
(primary) Loading, in-lb (mmN)
Mo = Out-plane bending moment due to sustained
(primary) Loading, in-lb (mmN)
ii,io = In-plane and out-plane stress intensification
factors
Sh = Basic allowable stress at the operating
temp., psi (KPa)

6.2.2

THERMAL EXPANSION STRESS RANGE

The computed displacement stress range shall be

done as below (Ref. Clause 319.4.4). The range of
bending and torsional stresses shall be computed
using the as installed.
Modulus of Elasticity Ea and then combined
as below to determine the computed stress range.
2
2
SE = Sb +4St

where
Sb =Resultantbendingstress,psi (KPa)
St =TorsionalStress= Mt/ 2z, psi
1000Mt/2z, KPa
M t =Torsionalmoment,in - lb (mm- N)
Z=SectionModulusof Pipe,in 3 (mm3 )

(b) The resultant bending stress to be used in the above

equation for elbows and full size branch connection
shall be calculated as follows
Sb =

(ii Mi )2 +(i0 M0 )2
Z

1000 (ii Mi ) +(i0 M0 )

Sb =
Z
where
i i =in - planeSIF
i o =out - planeSIF
2

Mi =in - planeBendingMoment
Mo =out - planeBendingMoment
Z=SectionModulusofPipe

Fig. 6.1 Moments in Bends

Fig. 6.2 Moments in Tees

For Reducing outlet branch connections, the equation

shall be as follows.

For Header,

Sb=

(i i M i )2 + (i 0 M 0 )2

in USCS units

Z
1000 [ (iiMi)2 +(ioMo)2 ] 1/2

Sb =

in SI units.

For Branch,
Sb =

(i i M i )2 + (i 0 M 0 )2
Ze

where
S b = Resultant bending stress
Z e =effective section modulus of branch
= r2 Ts
r2 = mean branch cross - sectional radius
Ts =effective branch wal l thicnkess ,
2

lesser of T h and (i i )( T b)
T h =Thickness of pipe matching run of tee
or header exclusive of renforceme nt
T b =Thickness of pipe matching branch

For branch connection, the resultant bending stress

needs special care as section modulus Z of header and
branch is different.

6.2.2

STRESS DUE TO OCCASIONAL

LOADS

ASME B 31.3 do not specifically define the

equation for calculating the stresses due to occasional
loads. The code, under clause 302.3.6 only states that the
sum of longitudinal stresses due to sustained and
occasional loads shall not exceed 1.33 times the basic
allowable stress. The method adopted is to calculate the
sustained and occasional stresses independently and to
then add them absolutely.

CAUTION

The pipe thickness has no significant effect on

bending stress due to thermal expansion but it affects end
reaction in direct ratio so overstress cannot be nullified by
increasing the thickness. On the contrary this makes the
matter worse by increasing end reactions.

COMPARISON OF CODES
Based on the above, we can identify the difference in
approach between these two codes
Stress increase due to occasional loads are different in each
code.
Allowable stresses are different for each code.
ASME B 31.3 include Fax in the stress calculation due to
sustained load where as ASME B 31.1 neglects all forces
ASME B 31.3 calculation methods are undefined for sustained
and occasional loads whereas ASME B 31.1 is explicit for the
same.
For calculation of stresses due to sustained loads ASME B31.3
neglects torsion where as ASME B31.1 includes it.
ASME B31.1 intensifies torsion where as ASME B 31.3 does
not.

For simple cantilever, the deflection is given by the

formula
P L3
y =
3EI
3EyI
Hence, P =
L3
E, y, L remaining the same, P = k I
3E y
where k =
L3
For 6(150 mm) NB Sch. 40 pipe
I = 1170 cm4
Z = 139 cm3
For 6 (150 mm) NB Sch. 80 pipe
I = 1686 cm4
Z = 200 cm3

Therefore,

Load P
Moment M
Stress = M/Z

Sch. 40
Sch. 80
1170 k
1686 k
1170 k L1686 k L
8.4 k L
8.4 k L

Form the above it can be seen that although

the stress remains the same, the forces and moments
increase with the increase in thickness of the pipe.

Where the piping system encounters large end

reactions or detrimental over strain and it lacks
built in changes in the direction to absorb the
same, the Piping Engineer should consider
adding flexibility by one or more of the following
means; addition of bends, loops or offsets, swivel
joints, corrugated pipes, expansion joints or other
means permitting angular, rotational or axial
movements. Suitable anchors shall be provided to
resist the end forces.

8.0

COLD SPRING

Piping Engineer may also provide cold cut or cold

spring to limit the value of stress and moment. Cold
spring is defined by the code ASME B 31.3 under clause
319.2.4 as the intentional deformation of piping during
assembly to produce a desired initial displacement and
stress.
No credit for cold spring is permitted in the stress
range calculation since the service life of a system is
affected more by the range of stress variation than by
magnitude of stress at a given time.

ASME B 31.3 gives the formula for calculation of

maximum reaction or moment when cold spring is
applied to a two anchor piping system in clause
319.5.1 as below.
where

E
R m =R 1- 2 c m
3 Ea

R m = Estimated instantaneous maximum

reaction force or moment at maximum
or minimum metal temperature.
R = Range of reaction force or moments
derived from flexibility analysis
corresponding to the full displacement
stress range and based on E a .
E a = Modulus of elasticity at installation
temprature
E m = Modulus of elasticity at design temperature
c = Cold spring factor from zero for no
cold spring to 1.0 for 100% cold spring

The factor 2/3 is based on experience, which shows that specified

cold spring cannot be fully assured even with elaborate precautions.

The value of reaction forces or moments at the

temperature at which the piping is assembled is
given by :
R

= CR or C 1 R, whichever

C 1 =1R

ShE

SE E

= Estimated
or moments

instantaneous
at the

is greater

reaction

installation

temperature
S E = Computed

displacement

S h = Maximum

allowable

stress

range

stress

at design temperature

ASME B 31.1 deals with these factors under the clause

119.9 and 119.10.
The reaction thus computed shall not exceed the limits
which the attached equipment can safely sustain.

AB = L1 = 25
BC = L2 = 10
CD = L3 = 5
L1/L3 = m = 25/5 =
5
L2/L3 = n = 10/5 = 2
By referring to chart,
we get :

Kb = 8.61 Kt = 4.35
Kx = 1.60 Ky = 0.09 Kz = 0.57

Kxy = 1.40 K = 1.50 K = 0.40

xz
yz

The book gives the following formula

The stresses are evaluated from the equation, S = KC D/L
lbs/ sq. inch

Three Dimensional 90 Turns

The forces are evaluated from the equation,

Moments are evaluated from the equation,

F = KC I/L 32 lbs
M = KC I/L ft/lbs
where C is the expansion factor calculated from the
expression
C=

Expansion in inches/100 ' Ec

1728 100

Torsional

Stress

=K t C D
L3
510 4.5
= 4.35
5
= 1997 lbs. / sq. inch

Expansion Stress Range = SE = Sb2 + 4St2

= (3952)2 + (1997)2
= 5619lbs/in 2
Reaction Fx =K x C Ip / L32
13.3
=1.6 510
5 5
=434lbs.
Reaction Fy =K y C Ip / L32
13.3
= 0.09 510
5 5
=24lbs.
Reaction Fz =K z C I p / L 2
3

= 0.57 510 13.3

5 5
=155lbs.

Moment

Moment

Moment

I
M xy = K xy C p
L 3
= 1.4 510 13.3
5
= 1899 ft . lbs .
I
M xz = K xz C p
L 3
= 1.5 510 13.3
5
= 2035 ft. lbs.
I
M yz = K yz C p
L 3
= 0.4 510 13.3
5
= 543 ft. lbs.

For example;
Pipe
size

= 4" std. wt. ASTM A106Gr.B

Operatin = 450 F
g Temp.

From table
Effective Elbow Diameter

Dr

8.78 inch

Effective Elbow Length

Lr

4.7 feet

Length of Short Vertical Leg

h =

5'

Length of Long Vertical Leg

H=

25'

Length of horizontal offset

W = 5'

h/H

= 5/25

0.20

H/W

= 25/5

5.00

From Chart, shape

factor

fs = 1.66

Square corner length

= h + H + W = l = 35.0'

Sum of elbow lengths

= 2 Lr = 2 x 4.7 = 9.4'

Total effective length

= l + 2 Lr = L = 44.4'

Effective Diameter
length

= L/Dr = f1 = 44.4/8.78 = 5.06

From Table 1
Expansion factor fe for 450 F = 73,000 psi [This can
also be calculated by the formula Expansion
inches/inch x Youngs Modulus i.e

f =E x
e

For C.S. Ec = 27.9 x 106

Expansion in inches per 100 for C.S. = 3.16 from
Appendix C. ANSI B31.3

Hence,
3.16 27.9 10 6
= 73,470 psi
fe =

100 12
Computed Stress Range
f f
SE = e s
f1
73000 1.66
=
= 23948 psi
5.06
S A = f (1.25 Sc + 0.25 Sh )
For CS to A 106 Gr. B,
S c = 20,000 psi
S h = 19,450 psi at 450 F
S A = 1(1.25 20,000 + 0.25 19450
= 29,862 psi
S E S A

RATIO W/U OF LOOP WIDTH ANCHOR DISTANCE (WIDE LOOPS)

U
100 99
90
80
70

U
98

97

96

95 94
.012

93 92 91 90

85

80

70

60

100
90
80
70

.014
.016

.020

60

60

50

50

40

EFFECTIVE LINE LENGTH

L-U +2H + nL
where n is read from chart

.03

40

.003
.004

30

30

.005

.04

.006
.007
.008

H/U=
.05

20

20

.010
.012
.014
.016

.06

.07

.020

.08

10
9
8
7

10
9
8
7

.03

.10

.04

.05

.12

.06

.07

.14

4
3

.08

.16

.10

.12

.20

.14

.16

.20

1
9
8
7
6

1
9
8
7
6

.3

.4

.5

.6

.7
.8

1.0
2

H/U=
1

1.2
1.4
1.6
2.0

.01 .015 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09 .10 .15 .20 .30 .40 .50

W
U

RATIO W/U OF LOOP WIDTH ANCHOR DISTANCE (NARROW LOOPS)

W
U

SHAPE FACTOR Fs for SYMMETRICAL EXPANSION LOOPS

W
Z - BENDS
1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

L - BEND

0.2

H
0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

10

100

.03
.03
.035

.035

70

100
60

60

70

.04

60

60

.04
.045

50

50

.045
.05

.05

40

.06

.06

30

40

.055

.055

.08

.08

20

.10

.10

.11

.11
.12

.12
.14

20

.09

.09

10

30

.07

.07

.16

.18

.18

.20

8
7

.16

10

.14

.20
4

.225
.225
.25

.25

3
.30
.30

.35

SHAPE FACTOR/s
2

.35

.40

.40

.45

.45

.5

.5

.6

1.0

1.0

.7
.8
1.0

.8
.7

.6
.8
.7

.8

.7

.8

.6

.6

1.0
.5

1.0

.5

.4

.4
1.25
.3

.2

1.0

1.5

EFFECTIVE LINE LENGTH

L=H+h+w + 2L, for Z and U-Bends
=H+w+L, for L-Bends

.3

1.25
2
1.5
2.5

.2

2
3

4
.1

.1
1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

RATIO h/H OF SHORTER TO LONGER OF Z-BENDS

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

10

RATIO h/H OF SHORTER TO LONGER OF U-BENDS

SHAPE FACTOR Fs for Z-, L- and U-BENDS with small H/w-Ratios

SHA

Z - BENDS
1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

U - BENDS

0.2

0.2

0.8

10

100
60

60

70

70

60

60

50

100

50
80
60

30

40

100

40

80

30

50
60

40

0.6

100
w

0.4

20

20

50

30

40

25
20

H/w=100

30

10

10

15

25

12.5

8
7

80
60

50

20

40

30

10

10 15

15

20

12.5

10

5
3

4
H/w=100

6
3

2.5

2
60

40

30

20

25

15

12.5
10

1.5

1.0

2.5

1.25

.8

.8
1.0

.8
.7

1.0

.7

1.5

.8

2.5
2

.6

1.25

1.0

.7

.6

.8

1.5
1.25

.5

.5

1.0
.4

.4
1.25

.3

.3

EFFECTIVE LINE LENGTH

L=H+h+w + 2L, for Z and U-Bends
=H+w+L, for L-Bends

1.5

2
1.5

.2

2.5

.2

2
3

.11.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

RATIO h/H OF SHORTER TO LONGER OF Z-BENDS

0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

10

RATIO h/H OF SHORTER TO LONGER OF U-BENDS

SHAPE FACTOR Fs for Z-, L- and U-BENDS with small H/w-Ratios

.1

There are computer software available to handle such

complex problems. Some of the software available are :1.
ADL PIPE
2.
AUTOPIPE
3.
CAESAR II
4.
CAEPIPE
5.
PIPEPLUS
6.
TRIFLEX
7.
Q-FLEX
The pipe line geometry is fed into the system along with
all the parameters such as design temperatures, pipe sizes,
bend radii, type of branch connections, locations of anchor
points and restraints. This is termed as `Modeling the
problem. The model can be generated by anybody who
knows how to prepare the input. The programme executes
the solutions. First complete Analysis was done in the year
1957.The analysis of the solutions is the real engineering
and is the job of a Piping Engineer.

The layout and the design of the piping and its supporting
elements shall be directed towards preventing the
following.
1. Piping stresses in excess of those permitted in
the code.
2. Leakage at joints
3. Excessive thrust and moments on connected
equipment (such as pumps and turbines)
4. Excessive stresses in the supporting (or
restraining) elements.
5. Resonance with imposed fluid induced
vibrations.
6. Excessive interference with thermal
expansion and contraction in a piping
system which is otherwise adequately flexible.

7.

8.
9.

10.

Unintentional disengagement of piping

from its supports
Excessive piping sag in systems requiring
drainage slope.
Excessive distortion or rag of piping (e.g.
thermo plastics) subject to creep under
conditions of repeated thermal cycling.
Excessive heat flow, exposing supporting
elements to temperature extremes outside
their design limits.

Fig. 11.1

Fig. 11.2

Fig. 11.3

LINE NO. PA24-6207-GL301(J)-40-IH2

150x40

1
INSTRUMENT ELBOW
TEE
90

80x40

TEE
EQ/RED

40NB

SPECIAL VALVE

150NB
80NB

80
40

1
3

8F31TL

40

S031TL(SFI)

M20x100
M16x90

8
12

M12x70
MI2x70

48
4

M/C BOLTS
M/C BOLTS
M/C BOLTS

STUD
BOLT

GASKET

VALVE

GASKET
STUD
BOLT

32 165

NOTE : FLANGE DRILLING AS PER

DIN 2673 P

BP 1015-PO-3506

PIPING LAYOUT

BP 1015-PO-3407

P&L DIAGRAM NO.

BP 1015-FI-1436/0

P&L DIAGRAM NO.

BP 1015-FI-142 DRAFT

200NBx50NB
200NBx25NB

1
1

PT101 SPEC
PT101 SPEC

200NB

10

PTFE ENVELOPED WITH STEEL

INSERT

M20x100

80

25

BF31TL

REMARK

SIZE

QTY.

150x100

150NB
100NB

1
1

M20x100

M/C BOLTS

M16x90

M/C BOLTS

CONC

QTY.

REMARK

30
40

1
1

8F 31TL
8F 31TL

ELBOW
45/90

40NB

90ELL

80x40

40NB

80NB
40NB
80

4
6
1

SG31TL

M16x90
M12x70

24

M/C BOLTS
M/C BOLTS

STUD
BOLT

SIZE

105

LINE NO. PA24-6657-GL301(J)-40-IH2

PIPE

ITEM
270 203

C
L T-4401

ELBOW
45/90

SIZE
40NBx500L
40NBx1000L
80NB

QTY.
1
1

40NB
80NB
40
40

SPECIAL
VALVE
NUT/
BOLT

M12x90
M12x70

4
28

GASKET

REMARK

80x40

REDUCER
CONC/ECC

2000

8091

PA24-8611-CL301(J)-200-IH3

3
1
1
1

VALVE

TEE
EQ/RED

30
105

BP 1015-PO-3502

EQUIPMENT LAYOUT AT SEC 'B-B'

CL R-4401

2000

C
L R-4403
EQUIPMENT LAYOUT AT 112.000M

20NBx2000L
200NBx600L
200NBx1800L
200NB

LINE NO. PA24-5611-GL301(J)-80-IH2

500

1800
C
L T-4404
BP 1015-PO-3501

REMARK

STUD

SPECIAL

REFRENCE DWG. NO

QTY.

REDUCER
CONC/ECC

8F31TL

GASKET

EQUIPMENT LAYOUT AT 106.000M

SIZE

LINE NO. PA24-5623-GL301-100-IH3

ITEM

ITEM

SPEC. GL301

LINE NO. PA24-5611-GL301(J)-200-IH3

ITEM
PIPIE

40NB

BILL OF MATERIAL

REMARK

QTY.

40NBx600L

12
1

105

280
16

SIZE

40NB
80x40

STUD/
BOLT

CL X-4401

C
L H-4401

REDUCER GASKET REDUC- ELBOW PIPE

ECC/CCNC
TING
45/90
FLANGE

ITEM

1
1
1

SG31TL (SFI)
BF31TL
M/C BOLTS
M/CBOLTS