Georgia Tech

Aerospace Systems Engineering

A Modern Approach
Dr. Daniel P. Schrage
Professor and Director,
Center of Excellence in Rotorcraft Technology(CERT)
Center for Aerospace Systems Analysis (CASA)

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Course Materials
Primary Text, Dieter, Engineering Design:
A Materials and Processing Approach, 3rd
Edition, McGraw Hill, 2000
Secondary Text,Systems Engineering
Fundamentals Defense Systems
Management College, 1998

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The Product Design Process

(Chapter 1, Dieter)

Introduction and Importance of Product Design

The Design Process A Simplified Approach
Considerations of a Good Design
Detailed Description of Design Process
Marketing
Organization for Design
Computer-Aided Engineering
Designing to Codes and Standards
Design Review
Technological Innovation and the Design Process

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Some Important Concepts

Design: to fashion after a plan (Webster Dictionary)

leaves out the essential fact that to design is to create
something that has never been
Synthesis: pulling together
Ability to design is both a science and an art
The science can be learned through techniques & methods
The art is best learned by doing design
Discovery: getting the first sight of, or the first knowledge of
something, as when Columbus discovered America
Invention: requires the design be a step beyond the limits of
existing knowledge (beyond the state of the art). Some designs
are truly inventive, but most are not

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Integrated Synthesis and Analysis

Varying Fidelity of Synthesis, Sizing& Analysis
Safety
Safety

Aerodynamics
Aerodynamics

Geometry

Economics

Economics

Synthesis & Sizing

Mission

S&C

S&C

Manufacturing

Integrated Routines
Table Lookup
Structures

Conceptual Design Tools

Approximating Functions
Direct Coupling of Analyses

Performance

Manufacturing

Increasing
Sophistication and
Complexity

(First-Order Methods)
Propulsion

Structures

Performance

Preliminary Design Tools

(Higher-Order Methods)
Propulsion

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Definition of Design
(per Dieter)

Design establishes and defines solutions to

and pertinent structures for problems not
solved before, or new solutions to problems
which have previously been solved in a
different way

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Good Design requires both Synthesis & Analysis

Typically, we approach complex problems like design by
decomposing the problem into manageable parts or
components
Because we need to understand how the part will perform in service
we must be able to calculate as much about the parts behavior as
possible by using the appropriate disciplines of science and
engineering science and the necessary computational tools
This is called Analysis and usually involves the simplification of the
real world through models
Synthesis involves the identification of the design elements that will
comprise the product, its decomposition into parts, and the
combination of the part solutions into a total workable system

In the typical design you rarely have a way of knowing the

correct answer. Hopefully, your design works, but is it the
best, most efficient design that could have been achieved
under the conditions? Only time will tell

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The Four Challenges (Cs) of the

Design Environment

Creativity
Requires creation of something that has not existed before
or not existed in the designers mind before
Complexity
Requires decisions on many variables and parameters
Choice
Requires making choices between many possible solutions
at all levels, from basic concepts to smallest detail of shape
Compromise
Requires balancing multiple and sometimes conflicting
requirements

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Product Design Process

Engineering design process can be applied to several
different ends
Design of Products, whether they be consumer goods
and appliances or highly complex products such as
missile systems or jet planes
Another is a complex engineered system such as an
electric power generating station or a petrochemical
plant
Yet another is the design of a building or bridge
The principles and methodology of design can be usefully
applied in each of these situations. However, the emphasis
in Dieters book is on product design and in this course is
complex product design, specifically Aerospace Systems
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Dieters Book Goal

Provide insight into the current best
practices for doing product design
The design process should be conducted so
as to develop quality cost-competitive
products in the shortest time possible
Is necessary, but insufficient for Aerospace
Systems Design
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Japanese Auto Industry and The U.S. Auto Industry

U.S. Company

Japanese
Company

+3
M o n th s

Jo b # 1

1 -3
M o n th s

1 4 -1 7
M o n th s

90%
Total Japanese
Changes Complete

2 0 -2 4
M o n th s

N u m b e r o f E n g in e e rin g P ro d u ct
C h a n g e s P ro ce ss e d

Japanese/U.S. Engineering Change Comparison

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The Quality Engineering Process

provides Recomposition Methods & Tools
Knowledge Feedback

Customer

Seven
Seven
Management
Management
and
andPlaning
Planing
Tools
Tools
Off-Line
Off-Line

Needs

Quality
Quality
Function
Function
Deployment
Deployment
Off-Line
Off-Line
Identify
Important
Items

Robust
Robust
Design
DesignMethods
Methods
(Taguchi,
(Taguchi,Six
Six- Sigma,
Sigma,DOE)
DOE)
Off-Line
Off-Line
Variation
Experiments

Make
Improvements

Statistical
Statistical
Process
Process
Control
Control
On-Line
On-Line
Hold Gains
Continuous
Improvement

Having heard the voice of the customer, QFD prioritizes where

improvements are needed; Taguchi provides the mechanism for
identifying these improvements

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Traditional Design & Development Using only a Top
Down Decomposition Systems Engineering Process

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IPPD Environment for System Level Design Trades and
Cycle Time Reduction
CONCEPTUAL
DESIGN
(SYSTEM)
SYSTEM
PROCESS
RECOMPOSITION

SYSTEM
FUNCTIONAL
DECOMPOSITION
Process
Trades

Product
Trades

PRELIMINARY
DESIGN
(PARAMETER)

COMPONENT
PROCESS
RECOMPOSITION

Process
Trades

PRELIMINARY
DESIGN
(PARAMETER)

INTEGRATED
PRODUCT
PROCESS
DEVELOPMENT

DETAIL
DESIGN
(TOLERANCE)

COMPONENT
FUNCTIONAL
DECOMPOSITION

Product
Trades

DETAIL
DESIGN
(TOLERANCE)
Process
Trades

Product
Trades

PART
PROCESS
RECOMPOSITION

PART
FUNCTIONAL
DECOMPOSITION
MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES

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Typical System Life Cycle Cost

100%

75%

Cumulative
Percent
of LCC

Life Cycle Cost

Effectively Rendered
Unchangeable for
a Given Design

50%

25%

0%
Con Exp

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PD & RR

E&MD

Life Cycle Cost

Actually Expended
Production, Deployment,
Operations and Support

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Ramifications of the Quality Revolution

Decisions made in the design process cost very
little in terms of the overall product cost but have
a major effect on the cost of the product
Quality cannot be built into a product unless it is
designed into it
The design process should be conducted so as to
develop quality cost-competitive products in the
shortest time possible
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Design Process Paradigm Shift

(Research Opportunities in Engineering Design, NSF Strategic Planning Workshop Final

Report, April 1996)
100%
Todays Design Process
Future Design Process

50%

Preliminary
Design

0%
Concept

Knowledge About Design

Design Freedom
Cost Committed

Analysis
and Detail
Design

Prototype
Development

Redesign

Product
Release

A paradigm shift is underway that

attempts to change the way complex
systems are being designed
Emphasis has shifted from design for
performance to design for
affordability, where affordability is
defined as the ratio of system
effectiveness to system cost +profit
System Cost - Performance Tradeoffs
must be accommodated early
Downstream knowledge must be
brought back to the early phases of
design for system level tradeoffs
The design Freedom curve must be
kept open until knowledgeable
tradeoffs can be made

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Static vs Dynamic Products

Some products are static, in that the changes in
their design concept take place over a long time
period; rather, incremental changes occur at the
subsystem and component levels (most air
vehicles are static)
Other products are dynamic, like
telecommunications systems and software, that
change the basic design concept fairly frequently
as the underlying technology changes (avionics
and mission equipment & software are dynamic)
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Simplified Design Process

Definition of the Problem

Gathering Information
Generation of Alternative Solutions
Evaluation of Alternatives
Communication of the Results

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Georgia Tech Generic IPPD Methodology

COMPUTER-INTEGRATED ENVIRONMENT
QUALITY
ENGINEERING METHODS

P R O C E S S D E S IG N D R IV E N

ESTABLISH
THE NEED

REQUIREMENTS
& FUNCTIONAL
ANALYSIS

DEFINE THE PROBLEM

SYSTEM DECOMPOSITION
&
FUNCTIONAL ALLOCATION

ESTABLISH
VALUE
ROBUST DESIGN
ASSESSMENT &
OPTIMIZATION

SYSTEMS
ENGINEERING METHODS

GENERATE FEASIBLE
ALTERNATIVES

SYSTEM SYNTHESIS
THROUGH MDO

P R O D U C T D E S IG N D R IV E N

7 M&P TOOLS AND

QUALITY FUNCTION
DEPLOYMENT (QFD)

TOP-DOWN DESIGN
DECISION SUPPORT PROCESS

EVALUATE
ALTERNATIVE
ON-LINE QUALITY
ENGINEERING &
STATISTICAL
PROCESS

MAKE DECISION

SYSTEM ANALYSIS
&
CONTROL

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Detailed Description of Design Problems

(Morris Asimows Morphology of design)

Phase I. Conceptual Design

Phase II. Embodiment Design (Preliminary Design)
Phase III. Detail Design
Phase IV. Planning for Manufacture
Phase V. Planning for Distribution
Phase VI. Planning for Use
Phase VII. Planning for Retirement of the Product

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Discrete Steps in Engineering Design Process

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Design Depends on Individual Who Defines Problem

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Classification of Products Based on Market

Platform Product
Is built around a preexisting technological subsystems, e.g. Apple
Macintosh operating systems
Is similar to a technology-push product

Process-Intensive Products
Manufacturing process places strict constraints on the properties of
the product
Examples are automotive sheet, steel, food products,
semiconductors chemicals and paper

Customized Products
Variations in configuration and content created in response to a s

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The Total Materials Cycle

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The Systems Engineering Process

Process Input

Customer Needs/Objectives/
Requirements
- Missions
- Measures of Effectiveness
- Environments
- Constraints
Technology Base
Output Requirements from Prior
Development Effort
Program Decision Requirements
Requirements Applied Through
Specifications and Standards

Requirements Analysis
Analyze Missions & Environments
Identify Functional Requirements
Define/Refine Performance & Design
Constraint Requirement

System Analysis
& Control
(Balance)

Requirement Loop
Functional Analysis/Allocation
Decompose to Lower-Level Functions
Allocate Performance & Other Limiting Requirements to
All Functional Levels
Define/Refine Functional Interfaces (Internal/External)
Define/Refine/Integrate Functional Architecture

Trade-Off Studies
Effectiveness Analysis
Risk Management
Configuration Management
Interface Management
Performance Measurement
- SEMS
- TPM
- Technical Reviews

Design Loop
Synthesis
Verification

Transform Architectures (Functional to Physical)

Define Alternative System Concepts, Configuration
Items & System Elements
Select Preferred Product & Process Solutions
Define/Refine Physical Interfaces (Internal/External)

Related Terms:
Customer = Organization responsible for Primary Functions
Primary Functions = Development, Production/Construction, Verification,
Deployment, Operations, Support Training, Disposal
Systems Elements = Hardware, Software, Personnel, Facilities, Data, Material,
Services, Techniques

Process Output
Development Level Dependant
- Decision Data Base
- System/Configuration Item
Architecture
- Specification & Baseline

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Systems Engineering, Its Purpose

To satisfy a mission need with a system
that is cost effective, operationally
suitable, and operationally effective.

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Systems Engineering Objectives

Translate customer needs into balanced system/subsystem
design requirements and product
Integrate technical inputs of the entire development
community and all technical disciplines into a coordinated
program effort
Transition new technologies into product and abatement
program
Ensure the compatibility of all functional and physical
interfaces
Verify that the product meets the established requirements
Conduct a formal risk management and

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What Is a System?
A system is a collection of components
(subsystems) that
Interact with one another
Have emergent capabilities - capabilities above
and beyond what the same collection of
components would if they did not interact
Interacting components implies architecture

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Elements of a System
Elements

Equipment Hardware
Software
Facilities
Personnel
Data

All elements are interrelated

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System Element Constituents

Equipment Hardware

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Mission hardware
Ground equipment
Maintenance equipment
Training equipment
Test equipment
Special equipment
Real Property
Spares
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System Element Constituents (cont.)

Software
Instructions
Commands
Data

Facilities

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Industrial
Operational
Training
Depot

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Systems Engineering Principles Apply to All Acquisition
Phases at All Levels of the Engineering Hierarchy
Levels in the
System Hierarchy

System of
systems

ts
en

m
re s
i
u i
eq lys
R na
a

al
n
tio is
c
n ys
Fu nal
a

n
io
t
a
ur is
g
fi es
n
o h
C ynt
s

/
is on
s
ly ati
a
an alu
m /ev
e
l
s t t ro
y
S on
c

System
Segment
Subsegment
Item
CED - Concept Exploration/Definition
PDRR - Program Definition & Risk Reduction

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P/D
EMD
PDRR
CED Acquisition
Phases
EMD - Engineering/Manufacturing Definition
P/D - Production/Deployment
Pre-CED

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Systems Engineering In IPD

IPD
Concurrent
Product
Development Teams
Systems
Systems
Engineering
Engineering
Process
Process

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Ability to Influence Cost

High

CED
PDRR
EMD
Production.
Deployment

Low
Time
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System Element Constituents (cont.)

Personnel

Training
Tasks
Number
Types and skills

Data
Parts Manuals
Maintenance Manuals
Operating Manuals

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Systems Thinking

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Roles of Systems Engineers*

Requirements Owner
System Designer
System Analyst
Validation/Verification Engr
Logistics/Ops Engineer
Glue Among Subsystems

Customer Interface
Technical Manager
Information Manager
Process Engineer
Coordinator
Classified Ads SE

*Source: Twelve Roles of Systems

Engineers, Sarah Sheard
URL: www.software.org/pub/externalpapers/

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What Is a System?
A system is a collection of components
(subsystems) that
Interact with one another
Have emergent capabilities - capabilities above
and beyond what the same collection of
components would if they did not interact
Interacting components implies architecture

CC04264792.ppt

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Examples of Systems
Aircraft engine vs a collection of parts
Aircraft with engines and avionics
Air traffic control with aircraft, airfields,
radars, controllers, CCS
Air transportation with air traffic control,
airlines, passengers, cargo, maintenance,
pickup and delivery

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More Complex Systems

Systems of Systems*

Individual systems can operate on their own

Systems of systems not owned and
controlled as a whole by single entity
*Mark Maier, Architecting Principles for Systems-ofSystems, Journal of the International Council on
Systems Engineering, Vol I, 1998

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Examples of Systems of
Systems

CC04264795.ppt

Internet
Auto and truck transportation
Air Defense System maybe
National Airspace System (NAS)
Future Combat Systems (FCS) for the Objective Force Brigade
(Unit of Action)

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Technical Director Is the Systems

Thinker
If not, objectives, approaches, and
decisions will not reflect systems
thinking
Technical Directors who dont think
systems inhibit systems thinking on
their project

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Why Is Systems Thinking

Good?

Intractable problems often have solutions in

the design space of the larger system
Solutions in the larger systems space are often
less costly or less risky
Integration with external systems are
addressed
early in the development

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A Community Example
The Problem (or so they thought)
Trees, fuels and other natural resources are
being used up, so we need to recycle them

The Solution (or so they thought)

Collect selected trash separately and sell it to
recycling facilities

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A Dose of Reality
Separate trash collections for recycleable
would double the cost
Market for recycled newspaper and
aluminum
cans was saturated
Unsold recycleables would have to be
stored -- at additional cost

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Starting to Think Systems

Who currently collects trash?
From whom?
What is done with the trash?

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Answers and More Questions

Two trash collectors
One collects from homes
One collects from businesses

Does the collector from businesses separate the

recycleables?
Both put trash in land fills
Both pay to put trash in land fills
How much does it cost to put trash in a land fill?

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The Land Fills as Part of the

System

$17* per ton to dump trash in the land fill

Expected to reach $30 per ton in 15 years
Land fills charge $150 per ton in New
York
Gee, maybe we should think about
conserving the land fills?

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A Systems Solution
Two collections per week
One for recycleables
One for non-cycleable trash

Slight increase in fees for storing

recycleables
Market demand of recycled paper
and aluminum increase soared in 5
years
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Consequences of Systems
Thinking

The original objective (saving

resources)
was satisfied
Current costs were contained
Future cost containment made the
slight
increase saleable to the public
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Dieter Chapter 2:
Need Identification and Problem Definition
Of all the steps in the engineering design process, problem
definition is the most important
Before the Problem-Definition Step: Design projects
commonly fall into one of five types:

Variation of an existing product

Improvement of an existing product
Development of a new product for low-volume production run
Development of a new product for mass production
One-of-a-kind- design

Identifying Customer Needs

Gathering Information from Customers
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Dieter Chapter 2:
Need Identification and Problem Definition

Constructing a Survey Instrument

Benchmarking
Customer Requirements
Quality Function Deployment
Product Design Specification
The basic control and reference document for the design and
manufacture of the product
In-Use Purposes and Market
Functional Requirments
Corporate Constraints
Social, Political and Legal Requirements

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Presentation Outline
Synthesis and Sizing of Aerospace Vehicles
Maneuverability and Agility Considerations
for Aerial Vehicles
Autonomous Vehicle Considerations
Summary and Conclusions

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Synthesis and Sizing of Aerial Vehicles

For Aerial Vehicles Synthesis and Sizing provides the Closure
between Mission Requirements and Geometric Configuration
Solutions
A Fuel and Thrust/Power Balance Approach is used which
allows for analytical design optimization (min. GW, etc.)
through the coupling of a few critical design parameters
(FW~aspect ratio, wing loading; RW~disk loading)
Maneuverability and Agility can be related to Energy
Principles (differences between Thrust/Power Available and
Thrust/Power Required), Handling Qualities and the design of
the Flight Control System

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Maneuverability and Agility

Considerations for Aerial Vehicles
Fixed Wing Fighter Aircraft normally have a good high speed
capability, good maneuverability at normal combat speeds (medium to
high subsonic and transonic speeds), high specific excess power, good
to excellent avionics, and the ability to employ guns and a wide range
of air-to-air missiles. To achieve these capabilities, their optimum
maneuvering speeds are usually rather high, impacting on low speed
maneuverability
Rotary Wing Aircraft have excellent low speed capability due to the
rotor hub control moments which provides excellent control power in
any axix. This allows rotary wing aircraft to fly Nap-of-the-Earth and
stress aggressive concealed movement to take full advantage of
masking provided by trees and terrain and attacking from a position of
advantage at maximum standoff range

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Summary and Conclusions

Aerial Vehicle Design and Performance is highly
dependent on the Mission identified and use of a Fuel and
Thrust/Power Synthesis Approach
For high speed, high altitude, high maneuvering attack
missions, such as Suppression of Enemy Air Defense
(SEAD), Fixed Wing Aerial Vehicle are the Choice
For low speed, low altitude, high agility(along with
vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL)capability)
reconnaissance and attack missions, such as Urban
Warfare, Rotary Wing Aerial Vehicles are the Choice

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Technological Innovation and The Design Process

The advancement of technology has three phases:
Invention: The creative act whereby an idea is conceived
Innovation: The process by which an invention or idea is brought
into successful practice and is utilized by the economy
Diffusion: The successive and widespread initiation of successful
innovation

The technological innovation activity can considered to be:

Ident. Of
Mkt Need

Product
idea

Develop
ment

Pilot
lot

Trial
sales

Commerc
Exploitation

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Successful products delineate four factors that

lead to success
1.

Product planning and research: Products where adequate

2.

Product superiority: Having a superior high-quality product

3.

Quality marketing: High in importance is how well the

4.

Proper organizational design: Successful products are most

time was spent in problem definition & concept development

that delivers real value to the customer makes all the differences
between winning and losing

marketing activities were executed from concept of the idea to the

launch of the product in the marketplace
often developed by a cross-functional team, led by a product
champion, supported by top management, and accountable for the
entire project from beginning to end

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Product and Process Cycles

Product Life Cycle and Cash Flow Analysis
Technology Development Cycle and S- Curves
Process Development Cycle
Uncoordinated development
Segmental development
Systematic development
Producition and Consumption Cycle

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Societal Considerations in Engineering

Characteristics of an Environmentally
Responsible Design
Five roles of government in interacting with
technology
Technology Identification, Evaluation and
Selection (TIES)

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Dieter: Chapter 3
Team Behavior and Tools
A team is a small number of people with complementary skills who are
committed to a common purpose, performance goals, and approach for which
they hold themselves mutually accountable
Differences between a working group and a team
Working Group
Team
-Strong, clearly focused leader
-Individual & mutual accountability
-The group,s purpose is the
- Specific team purpose that the team
Same as the broader org.msn.
Itself develops
- Individual work products
- Collective work products
- Runs efficient meetings
- Encourages open-ended discussion
and active problem-solving meetings
- Measures its effectiveness
- Measures performance directly by
indirectly by its influence
assessing collective work products
-Discusses,decides and delegates - Discusses, decides and does real work
together

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Dieter: Chapter 3
Team Behavior and Tools
What It Means to be an Effective Team Member

Take responsibility for the success of the team

Be a person who delivers on commitments
Be a contributor to discussions
Give your full attention to whomever is speaking and demonstrate this by asking helpful
questions
Develop techniques for getting your message across to the team
Learn to give and receive useful feedback

The following are characteristics of an effective team:

Team goals are as important as individual goals

The team understands the goals and is committed to achieving them
Trust replaces fear and people feel comfortable taking risks
Respect, collaboration and open-mindedness are prevalent
Team members communicate readily; diversity of opinions are encouraged
Decisions are made by consensus and have the acceptance and support of the members of
the team

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Dieter: Chapter 3
Team Behavior and Tools
TEAM ROLES: Within a team members assume different
roles in addition to being an active team member
TEAM DYNAMICS:Students of team behavior have
observed that most teams go through five stages of
development
EFFECTIVE TEAM MEETINGS: Students who complain
about design projects taking too much time often are really
expressing their inability to organize their meetings and
manage their time effectively
PROBLEMS WITH TEAMS: A well-functioning team
achieves its objectives quickly and efficiently in an
environment that induces energy and enthusiam

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Dieter: Chapter 3
Team Behavior and Tools
PROBLEM SOLVING TOOLS
TIME MANAGEMENT
PLANNING AND SCHEDULING

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Dieter: Chapter 5
Concept Generation and Evaluation
With a clear product design specification developed in
Chap. 2 we have arrived at the point where we are ready to
generate design concepts, evaluate them, and decide which
one will be carried forward to a final product
The principle that grades this work is that put forth by the
American architect-engineer Louis Henri Sullivan, form
follows function
By this we mean, if the functions of the design are clearly
understood, then its appropriate form or structure will be
easier to determine
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Dieter: Chapter 5
Concept Generation and Evaluation
A design concept is an idea that is sufficiently developed
that it can be evaluated in terms of physical realizability,
i.e., the means of performing each major function has been
determined
The process that is applied in this chapter will result in the
generation of multiple design concepts
Then, with a set of design concepts we will subject them to
an evaluation scheme to determine the best concept or
small subset of best concepts
Finally, a decision process will be used to decide on the
best concept to develop into the final design
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Dieter: Chapter 5.2 -Creativity and Problem Solving

Creative thinkers are distinguished by their ability to synthesize new combinations of

ideas and concepts into meaningful and useful forms
A characteristic of the creative process is that initially the idea is only imperfectly
understood
Usually the creative individual senses the total structure of the idea but initially
perceives only a limited number of the details
The creative process be viewed as moving from an amorphous idea to a well-structured
idea, from the chaotic to the organized, from the implicit to the explicit
Engineers, by nature and training, usually value order and explicit detail and abhor
chaos and vague generality
To achieve a truly creative solution to a problem a person must utilize two thinking
styles: vertical or convergent thinking and lateral or divergent thinking
Vertical thinking is the type of analytical though process reinforced by most engineering
courses where one moves forward in sequential steps after a positive decision has been
made about the idea
In lateral thinking your mind moves in may different directions, combining different
pieces of information into new patterns (synthesis) until several solution concepts appear

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Dieter: Chapter 5.3 -Creativity Methods

5.4 Creative Idea Evaluation

Mental Blocks: Perceptual blocks, Emotional blocks, Cultural blocks,

Environmental blocks, Intellectual blocks
Brainstorming: Carefully define the problem at the start; Allow 5
minutes for each individual to think the problem on their own before
starting the group process; SCAMPER checklist to aid in
brainstorming
Synectics: technique for creative thinking which draws on analogical
thinking Direct analogies, Personal analogies, Symbolic analogies,
Fantasy analogies
Force-Fitting Methods: SCAMPER is one of most widely used
methods
Mind Map: Concept map

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Dieter: Chapter 5.5: Theory of Inventive Problem

Solving (TRIZ)
Developed in Russia, starting around 1946, Genrich
Altshuller,etc. Studied over 1.5 million patents
They organized the problem solutions from the patent
literature into five levels:
Level 1: Routine design solutions (~30%)
Level 2: Minor corrections to an existing system (~45%)
Level 3: Fundamental improvements which resolve contradiction
(~20%) This is where creative design solutions would appear
Level 4: Solutions based on appln of new scientific principle to
perform the primary functions of the design (~4%)
Level 5: Pioneering inventions based on rare scientific discovery
(<1%)

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Dieter: Chapter 5.6: Conceptual Decomposition

Two chief approaches to conceptual decomposition:
Decomposition in the physical domain
Decomposition in the functional domain the great advantage of
functional decompostion is that the method facilitates the examination of
options that most likely would not have been considered

Decomposition in the Physical Domain: an important

emerging design consideration is product architecture scheme
by which the functional elements of the product are arranged
into physical building blocks
Functional Decomposition: systems functions are described as
a transformation between an initial state and a desired final
state; originated with the German school of design methodology

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Dieter: Chapter 5.7: Generating Design Concepts

Concept Development
Morphological Chart
Combining Concepts

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Dieter: Chapter 5.8: Axiomatic Design

Axiom 1: The independence axiom

Maintain the independence of functional
requirements (FRs)

Axiom 2: The information axiom

Minimize the information content

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Dieter: Chapter 6
Embodiment (Preliminary) Design
Many U.S. writers divide the design process into 3 phases:
Conceptual Design
Preliminary (Embodiment) Design
Detail Design
Others call embodiment design analytical design because it is the
design phase where most of the detailed analysis and calculation occurs
Dieter adopts the terminology conceptual design, embodiment design,
and detail design because they seem to be more descriptive of what
takes place in each of these design phases
Moving the setting of dimensions and tolerances into embodiment
design (from detail design) is in keeping with the current trend for
utilizing CAE so as to move the decision making as early as possible in
the desing process to compress the product development cycle

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Dieter: Chapter 6
Three different forms of design:
Routine design: the attributes that define the design and the
strategies and methods for attaining them are well known
Innovative design: not all attributes of the design may be known
beforehand, but the knowledge base for creating the design is
known
Creative design: neither the attributes of the design nor the
strategies for achieving them are known ahead of time

The Conceptual design phase is most central to innovative

design
At the opposite pole is selection design or catalog design,
which is more central to routine design

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Dieter: Chapter 6
Product Architecture

Product architecture is the arrangement of the physical elements of a product to

carry out its required functions
It is in the Embodiment design phase that the layout and architecture of the
product must be established by defining what the basic building blocks of the
product should be in terms of what they do and what their interfaces will be
between each other. Some organizations refer to this as system-level design
There are two entirely opposite styles of product architecture, modular and
integral:
Modular: components (chunks) implement only one or a few functions and the
interactions are well defined
Integral: implementation of functions uses only one or a few components (chunks)
leading to poorly defined interactions between components (chunks)

In integral product achitectures components perform multiple functions

Products designed with high performance as a paramount attribute often have
an integral architecture

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Dieter: Chapter 6
Product Architecture

A modular design makes it easier to evolve the design over time, to adapt it to the
needs of different customers, to replenish components as they wear out or are used
up, and to reuse the product at the end of its useful life by remanufacture
Modular design may even be carried to the point of using the same component in
multiple products, a product family
Integral desing is often adopted when constraints of weight,k space, or cost require
that performance be maximized
There is a natural tension between component integration to minimize costs and
product architecture
The best approach is to consider integration of components only within a single
chunk (set of components) of the product architecture
Thus, the product architecture has strong implications for manufacturing costs
A modular architecture tends to shorten the product development cycle becasuse
module can be deveolped independently provided there is not coupling of functon
betgween modules, and provided that interfaces are well laid out and understood

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Dieter: Chapter 6
Product Architecture
Four step process for establishing the product architecture
Create a schematic diagram of the product (FFBD, Schematic
Block Diagram)
Cluster the elements of the schematic (DSM, DeMAID)
Create a rough geometric layout (3-view drawing)
Identify the fundamental and incidental interactions
(Interrelationship Diagraph, Compatibility Matrix)

SEE EXAMPLES FROM TEXT

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Dieter: Chapter 6
Configuration Design

In configuration design we establish the shape and general dimensions of

components. Exact dimensions and tolerances are established in parametric design
The term component is used in the generic sense to include special-purpose parts,
standard parts, and standard assemblies or modules
A part is a designed object that has no assembly operations in its manufacture
A standard part is one that has a generic function and is manufactured routinely
w/o regard to a particular product (bolts, washers, etc.)
A special-purpose part is designed and manufactured for a specific purpose in a
specific product line
An assembly is a collection of two or more parts
A subassembly is an assembly that is included within another assembly or
subassembly
A standard assembly or standard module is an assembly or subassembly which has
a generic function and is manufactured routinely (electric motors, pumps, etc.)

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Dieter: Chapter 6
Configuration Design
Steps in starting Configuration design:
Review the PDS
Establish the spatial constraints that pertain to th product or the
subassembly being designed. Most have been set by the product
architecture
Create and refine the interfaces or connections between components
Maintain functional independence in the design of an assembly or
component
Answer the following questions:
Can the part be eliminated or combine with another part?
Can a standard part or module be used
Generally, the best way to get started with configuration design is to just
start sketching alternative configurations of a part

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Dieter: Chapter 6
Parametric Design
In configuration design the emphasis was on starting with
the product architecture and then working out the best
form for each component
In parametric design the attributes of parts identified in
configuration design become the design variables for
parametric design
A design variable is an attribute of a part whose value is
under the control of the designer
Robustness means achieving excellent performance under
the wide range of conditions that will be found in service

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Dieter: Chapter 6
Parametric Design
Read Table 6.2: Questions for revealing part configuration
design risks
Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
Design for Reliability
Robust Design
Tolerances
Design Guidelines for Best Practices

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Dieter: Chapter 7
Modeling and Simulation
The Role of Models in Engineering Design

Descriptive model
Predictive model
Static or dynamic
Deterministic or probabilistic
Iconic-analog-symbolic
Simulation
The Prototype

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Dieter: Chapter 7
Modeling and Simulation
Mathematical Modeling
The components of a system are represented by idealized elements that
have the essential characteristics of the real components and whose
behavior can be described by mathematical equations
Techniques for treating large and complex systems by isolating the
critical components and modeling them are at the heart of the growing
discipline called systems engineering
Important simplification results when the distributed properties of
physical quantities are replaced by their lumped equivalents.
A system is said to have lumped parameters if it can be analyzed in terms
of the behavior of the endpoints of a finite number of discrete elements
Once the chief components of the system have been identified, the next
step is to list the important physical and chemical quantities that describe
and determine the behavior of the system

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Dieter: Chapter 7
Modeling and Simulation
Dimensional Analysis
Buckingham Pi Theorem

Similitude and Scale Models

Scale models
Geometric similarity
Model dimension = scale factor x prototype dimension

Static similarity-same portion as geometric dim under cons. stress

Kinematic similarity- ratio of time proportionality
Dynamic similarity- fixed ratio of forces

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Dieter: Chapter 7
Modeling and Simulation
Simulation
Finite-Difference Method
A method of approximate solution of partial differential equations

Monte Carlo Method

A way of generating information for a simulation when events occur in a
random way

Geometric Modeling on the Computer

From it initiation,CAD has promised 5 important benefits to the
engineering design process
Automation of routine design tasks
Ability to design in 3D
Design by Solid Modeling
Electronic transfer of the design db to manuf (CAD/CAM)
A paperless design process

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Dieter: Chapter 7
Modeling and Simulation

Surface Modeling
Methods of Generating Solids
Constraint-Based Modeler and Features
Finite-Element Analysis
Types of Elements
Steps in the FEA Process
Preprocessing: Geometry, Matl constit reln, FE mesh, Bndy Conds
Postprocessing: Data interpret., Error estim., Design optim

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Dieter: Chapter 7
Modeling and Simulation
Computer Visualization
Dynamic Analysis
Interactive Product Simulation

Rapid Prototyping

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Dieter: Chapter 8
Materials Selection and Materials in Design
The selection of the correct materials for a design is a key step in the
process because it is the crucial decision that links computer calculations
and lines on an engineering drawing with a working design
Materials, and the manufacturing processes which convert the material
into a useful part, underpin all engineering design
The adoption of concurrent engineering methods has brought materials
engineers into the design process at an earlier stage, and the importance
given to manufacturing in present day product design has reinforced the
fact that materials and manufacturing are closely linked in determining
final product performance
The extensive activity in materials science worldwide has created a
variety of new materials and focused our attention on the competition
between six broad classes of materials: metals, polymers, elastomers,
ceramics, glasses, and composites

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Dieter: Chapter 8
Materials Selection and Materials in Design
Relation of Materials Selection to Design
An incorrectly chosen material can lead not only to failure of the part
but also to unnecessary life-cycle cost
Selecting the best material for a part involves more than selecting a
material that has the properties to provide the necessary performance in
service; it is also intimately connected with the processing of the
material into the finished part (Fig. 8.1)
As design proceeds from concept design, the material and process
selection becomes more detailed
Figure 8.2 compares the design methods and tools used at each design
stage with the materials and processes selection
Thus, material and process selection is a progressive process of
narrowing from a large universe of possibilities to a specific material
and process selection

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Dieter: Chapter 8
Materials Selection and Materials in Design
General Criteria for Selection: Materials are selected on the basis
of four general criteria:

Performance characteristics (properties)

Processing characteristics
Environmental profile
Business considerations

The chief business consideration that affects materials selection is

the cost of the part that is made from the material
This considers both the purchase cost of the material and the cost
to process it into a part. A more rational basis for selection is life
cycle cost (LCC), which includes the cost of replacing failed parts
and the cost of disposing of the material at the end of its useful
life

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Dieter: Chapter 8
Materials Selection and Materials in Design
Performance Characteristics of Materials
The performance or functional requirements of material usually is
expressed in terms of physical, mechanical, thermal, electrical, or
chemical properties
Material properties are the link between the basic structure and
composition of the material and the service performance of the part
(Figure 8.3)
We can divide structural engineering materials into metals, ceramics,
and polymers; Further division leads to the categories of elastomers,
glasses, and composites; Finally, there is the technology driving
class of electronic, magnetic, and semiconductor materials
The chief characteristics of metals, ceramics, and polymers are given
in Table 8.1

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Dieter: Chapter 8

Materials Selection and Materials in Design

Performance Characteristics of Materials

The ultimate goal of materials science is to predict how to improve the properties
of engineering materials by understanding how to control the various aspects of
structure
Figure 8.4 relates various dimensions of structure with typical structural elements
The first task in materials selection is to determine which material properties are
relevant to the situation
Figure 8.5 shows the relations between some common failure modes and the
mechanical properties most closely related to the failures
The material properties usually are formalized through specifications:
Performance and Product specifications
Table 8.2 provides a fairly complete listing of material performance
characteristics
Figure 8.6 illustrates the generic tree that is developed by expanding the category
of fatigue properties

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Dieter: Chapter 8
Materials Selection and Materials in Design
The Materials Selection Process
The problem is not only often made difficult by insufficient or
inaccurate property data but is typically one of decision making in the
face of multiple constraints without a clear-cut objective function
A problem of materials selection usually involves one of two different
situations
Selection of the materials for a new product or design
Reevaluation of an existing product or design to reduce cost,
increase reliability, improve performance, etc.
It generally is not possible to realize the full potential of a new material
unless the product is redesigned to exploit both the properties and the
manufacturing characteristics of the material
In other words, a simple substitution of a new material without changing
the design rarely provides optimum utilization of the material

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Dieter: Chapter 8
Materials Selection and Materials in Design
Materials selection for a new product or new design: The steps that must be
followed are:

Define the functions that the design must perform

Define the manufacturing parameters
Compare the needed properties and parameters with large database
Investigate the candidate materials in more detail
Develop design data and/or a design specification

Materials substitution in an existing design

Characterize the currently used material in terms of performance, manufacturing
requirements, and cost
Determine which characteristics must be improved for enhanced product function
Search for alternative matls & processing routes
Compile a short list of matls & processing routes and use these to estimate the costs
of manufactured parts
Evaluate the results of Step 4 & make a recommendation for a replacement material

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Dieter: Chapter 8
Materials Selection and Materials in Design
Design Process and Materials Selection
There are two approaches to determing the material-process
combination for a part
Material first approach: the designer begins by selecting a material
class and narrowing it down
Process first approach: the designer begins by selecting the
manufacturing process

While materials selection issues arise at every stage in the design

process, the opportunity for greatest innovation in materials
selection occurs at the conceptual design stage
Ashby Charts: Figure 8.7a: Youngs modulus vs density; Figure
8.7b: Strength vs density

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Dieter: Chapter 8
Materials Selection and Materials in Design
Materials Selection in Embodiment (Preliminary) Design
Detailed materials selection is typically carried out in the
embodiment design phase using the process illustrated in Fig. 8.8
When the material process selection is deemed adequate for the
requirements, the process passes to a detailed specification of the
material and the design
Once the component goes into production, the early runs will be
used to fine tune the manufacturing process and to gauge the
market receptivity to the product

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Dieter: Chapter 8
Materials Selection and Materials in Design
Sources of Information on Materials Properties
The purpose of this section is to provide a guide to material property
data that are readily available in the published technical literature
Scatter or variability of material property results is considerable,
however, it is rare to find a property data presented in a proper
statistical manner by a mean value and the standard deviation (See
Chap. 10)
Obviously, for critical applications in which reliability is of great
importance, it is necessary to determine the frequency distribution of
both the material property and the parameter that describes the
service behavior
Figure 8.9 shows that when the two frequency distributions overlap,
there will be a statistically predictable number of failures

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Dieter: Chapter 8
Materials Selection and Materials in Design
Sources of Information on Materials Properties
Conceptual Design
Typical material selection references, such as Ashby scheme

Embodiment (Preliminary) Design

Design decisions are being made on the layout and size of parts and components
Design calculations require materials properties for a narrower class of materials but
specific to a particular heat treatment or manufacturing process
These data are typically found in handbooks and computer dbs.

Detail Design
Very precise data is required
This goes beyond just material properties to include information on manufacturability,
cost, the experience in other applns, avail in the sizes and forms needed, and issues of
repeat. of properties & QA
Two often overlooked factors are whether the manufacturing process will produce
different properties in different directions in the part, and whether the part will contain
a detrimental state of residual stress after manufacture

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Dieter: Chapter 8
Materials Selection and Materials in Design
Economics of Materials
Ultimately the decision on a particular design will come down to a trade-off
between performance and cost
Where performance doesnt dominate the manufacturer must provide a value to
cost ratio that is no worse, and preferably better,
than the competition
By value we mean the extent to which the performance criteria appropriate to the
application are satisfied. Cost is what must be paid to achieve that level of value
Because cost is such an overpowering consideration in material selection we need
to give this factor additional attention
- Scarcity
- Cost & amount of energy required to process
- Basic supply & demand for the material
- Increases in properties, like yield strength, beyond those of the basic material are
produced by changes in structure brought about by compositional changes and
additional processing steps

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Dieter: Chapter 8
Materials Selection and Materials in Design

Methods of Materials Selection

There is no method or small number of methods of materials selection that has

evolved to a position of prominence
Since the final choice is a trade-off between cost and performance (properties),
it is logical to attempt to express that relation as carefully as possible
Figure 8.10 shows the costs of substituting lightweight magterials to achieve
weight saving (fuel economy) in automobiles
It is important to realize that the cost of a material expressed in dollars per
pound may not always be the most valid criterion
Total LLC is the most appropriate cost to consider
Consideration of factors beyond just the initial materials cost leads to relations
like the relation shown in Figure 8.11
A classic situation regarding cost is the choice between two or more materials
with different initial costs and different expected lives. This is a standard
problem in the field of engineering economy (See Chap. 13)

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Dieter: Chapter 8
Materials Selection and Materials in Design
Selection with Computer-Aided Databases
Use of a Merit Factor approach similar to an OEC

Material Performance Indices

A materials performance index is a group of material properties
which governs some aspect of the performance of a component

Decision Matrices
Pugh Selection Method
Weighted Property Index

Materials Selection by Expert Systems

Value Analysis
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Dieter: Chapter 8
Materials Selection and Materials in Design
Design for Brittle Fracture: An important advance in engineering knowledge has
been the ability to predict the influence of cracks and crack-like defects on the brittle
fracture of materials through the science of fracture mechanics

Design for Fatigue Failure: Materials subjected to a repetitive or fluctuating stress

will fail at a stress much lower than required to cause fracture on a single application of
load
Infinite-life design
Safe-life design
Fail-safe design
Damage-tolerance design
Design for Corrosion Resistance
Designing with Plastics
Designing with Brittle Materials

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Dieter: Chapter 9
Materials Processing and Design
Role of Processing in Design
Producing the design is a critical link in the chain of events that starts
with a creative idea and ends with a successful product in the
marketplace
A serious problem has been the tendency to separate the design and
manufacturing functions into separate organizational units
More conventional manufacturing is divided into (1) process
engineering, (2) tool engineering, (3) work standards, (4) plant
engineering, and (5) administration and control
We ordinary think of modern engineering in terms of the automotive
assemble line, but mass production manufacturing systems account for
less than 25 percent of metal pars manufactured
The major opportunity for greatly increasing manufacturing
productivity in small-lot manufacture

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Dieter: Chapter 9
Materials Processing and Design
Classification of Manufacturing Processes
Solidification (casting) processes
Deformation processes
Material removal or cutting (machining) processes
Polymer processing
Powder processing
Joining processing
Heat treatment and surface treatment
Assembly processes
Types of Process Systems
Job shop
- Assembly line
Batch - Continuous flow

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Dieter: Chapter 9
Materials Processing and Design

Factors Determining Process Selection

Cost of manufacture and life cycle cost
Quantity of parts required
Complexity shape, form, size
Material
Quality of part
Availability, lead time, and delivery schedule
Design for Manufacturability (DFM)
DFM Guidelines (Min tot # of parts; Standardize comps; Use
common parts across product lines; Design parts to be multifcnl;
Design parts for ease of fab.; Avoid too tight tolerances; Avoid
secondary opns; Utilize the special characteristics of processes)

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Dieter: Chapter 9
Materials Processing and Design
Design for Assembly (DFA)
The assembly process consists of two operations, handling
followed by insertion
There are three types of assembly, classified by the level of
automation
A list of DFA guidelines are:

Min. the tot. no. of parts

Min. the assembly surfaces
Avoid separate fasteners
Min. assembly direction
Max. compliance in assembly
Min handling in assembly

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Dieter: Chapter 9
Materials Processing and Design
Early Estimation of Manufacturing Cost
The decisions about materials, shape, features and tolerances that
are made in the embodiment phase of design determine the
manufacturing cost of the product
It is not often possible to get large cost reductions once production
has begun because of the high cost of change at this stage of the
product life cycle
Therefore, we need a way of identifying costly designs as early as
possible in the design process
One way is to include knowledgeable manuf psnl on IPT

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Dieter: Chapter 10
Engineering Statistics
Statistics and Design
Since in engineering design we typically deal with poorly defined
situations or are forced to use data that have low precision, it is
easy to appreciate how the proper application of statistical analysis
can help greatly with engineering design
At least four major aspects of statistical analysis are important in
engineering design
Hypotheses tests
Confidence limits
Analysis of variance
Statistical design of experiments

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Dieter: Chapter 10
Engineering Statistics - Probability
A basic underlying assumption of probability theory is that it
deals with random events
A random event is one in which the conditions are such that
each member of the population N has an equal chance of being
chosen
A special and precise system of language and notation is used
in probability theory
Two events A and B are said to be independent if the
occurrence of either one has no effect on the occurrence of the
other
Two events that have no elements in common are said to be
mutually exclusive events

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Dieter: Chapter 10
Engineering Statistics Errors and Samples & Frequency
Distribution
The act of making any type of experimental observation
involves two types of errors:
Systematic errors (which exert a nonrandom basis)
Experimental,or random, errors

When a large number of observations are made from a

random sample, a method is needed to characterize the
data
Histograms,
Frequency Distribution

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Dieter: Chapter 10
Engineering Statistics Measures of Central Tendency &
Dispersion
A frequency distribution can be described with numbers
that indicate the central location of the distribution and
how the observations are spread out from the central
location (dispersion)
Arithmetic mean, or average
Mode and Median
Standard Deviation
Range

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Dieter: Chapter 10
Engineering Statistics Types of Distributions

Normal and Lognormal Distributions

Many physical measurements follow the symmetrical, bell-shaped curve of the
normal, or Gaussian, frequency distribution
Weibull Distribution
Widely used for many engineering problems because of its versatility, since
many random variables follow a bounded, nonsymmetrical distribution, such as
fatigue life of components
Gamma Distribution
Used to describe random variables that are bounded at one end
Exponential Distribution
Special case of the gamma distribution for = 1
Distributions for Discrete Variables
The normal and other distributions discussed deal with continuous random
variables;however, there are important engineering problems in which the
random variable takes on only discrete values

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Dieter: Chapter 10
Engineering Statistics Sampling Distributions
The central problem in statistics is relating the population
and the samples that are drawn from it
This problem is viewed from two perspectives:
What does the population tell us about the behavior of the samples
What does a sample or series of samples tell us about the
population form which the sample came

Distribution of Sample Means

t Distribution
Distribution of Sample Variances
F Distribution
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Dieter: Chapter 10
Engineering Statistics Statistical Tests of Hypotheses
and Statistical Intervals
The statistical decision-making process can be put on a
rational, systematic basis by considering various
statistically based hypotheses
Null hypothesis Ho: = o
Alternative hypothesis H1: < o

Interval estimation is commonly used to make probability

statements about the population from which a sample has
been drawn or to predict the results of a future sample
from the same population
Confidence Interval
Prediction Interval

- Tolerance Interval
- Rejection of Outliers

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Dieter: Chapter 10
Engineering Statistics Analysis of Variance
When we have three or more samples treatments we can
use a statistical procedure call the Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA) which is important in design of experiments
With ANOVA we determine:
The total spread of results between the different treatments
The spread of results within each treatment

One-Way Classification
Two-Way Classification

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Dieter: Chapter 10
Engineering Statistics Statistical Design of Experiments

The greatest benefit can be gained from statistical analysis when the experiments are
planned in advance so that data are taken in a way that will provide the most
unbiased and precise results commensurate with the desired expenditure of time and
money
This can best be done through the combined efforts of a statistician and the engineer
during the planning stage of the project
Probably the most important benefit from statistically designed experiments is that
more information per experiment will be obtained than with an unplanned
experimentation
A second benefit is that statistical design results in an organized approach to the
collection and analysis of information
Still another advantage of statistical planning is the credibility that is given to the
conclusions of an experimental program when the variability and sources of
experimental error are made clear by statistical analysis
Finally, an important benefit of statistical design is the ability to discover
interactions between experimental variables

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Dieter: Chapter 10
Engineering Statistics Statistical Design of Experiments
In general, there are three classes of statistically designed
experiments
Blocking designs use blocking techniques to remove the effect of
background variables from experimental error
Factorial designs are experiments in which all levels of each factor
in an experiment are combined with all levels of every other factor
Response surface designs are used to determine the empirical
functional relation between factors (independent variables) and the
response (performance variable). The central composite design and
rotatable designs are frequently used for this purpose

Factorial Design
Fractional Factorial Designs
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Dieter: Chapter 10
Engineering Statistics Regressional Analysis
Regression analysis is the statistical technique for
establishing such relationships between two or more
variables
Functional relation: emphasis is on prediction
Association: correlation between variables, which vary jointly

Method of Least Squares

Linear Multiple Regression Analysis
Nonlinear Regression Analysis
Linearization Transformation

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Dieter: Chapter 10
Engineering Statistics Response Surface Methodology
A powerful statistical procedure that employs factorial
analysis and regression analysis has been developed for the
determination of the optimum operating condition.
Response surface methodology (RSM) has two objectives:
To determine with one experiment where to move in the next
experiment so as to continually seek out the optimal point on the
response surface
To determine the equation of the response surface near the optimal
point

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Dieter: Chapter 11
Risk, Reliability, and Safety
A hazard (unsafe condition) is the potential for human,
property, or environmental damage
A risk is the likelihood, expressed either as a probability or as a
frequency, of a hazards materializing
Risk assessment has become increasingly important in
engineering design as the complexity of engineering systems
has increased
Reliability is a measure of the capability of a part or a system
to operate without failure in the service environment. It is
always expressed as a probability
Safety is relative protection from exposure to hazards. A thing
is safe if its risks are judged to be acceptable

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Dieter: Chapter 11
Risk, Reliability, and Safety
Regulation as a Result of Risk
In a democracy when the public perception of a risk reaches sufficient
intensity, legislation is enacted to control the risk

Standards
Standards are one of the most important ways in which the engineering
profession makes sure that society receives a minimum level of safety and
performance

Risk Assessment
The assessment of risk is an imprecise process involving judgment and
intuition
Three classifications of level of risk
Tolerable risk
Acceptable risk
Unacceptable risk

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Dieter: Chapter 11
Risk, Reliability, and Safety: Probabilistic Approach to
Design
Conventional engineering design uses a deterministic
approach
It disregards the fact that material properties, the
dimensions of the components, and the externally applied
loads are stochastic in nature
In conventional design these uncertainties are handled by
applying a factor of safety
In critical design situations, such as aircraft, space, and
nuclear applications, however, there is a growing trend
toward using a probabilistic approach to better quantify
uncertainty and thereby increase reliability
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Dieter: Chapter 11
Risk, Reliability, and Safety: Probabilistic Approach to
Design
There are three typical approaches for incorporating
probabilistic effects in design
The use of a factor of safety
The use of the absolute worst case design
The use of probability in design

The use of probability in design

Pf = P( > Sy)
The reliability R is defined as
R = 1-Pf
See Example in Text

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Dieter: Chapter 11
Risk, Reliability, and Safety: Probabilistic Approach to
Design
Variability in Material Properties
The mechanical properties of engineering materials exhibit
variability
Fracture and fatigue properties show greater variability than do the
static tensile properties of yield strength and tensile strength
Conservative design values for material properties are required in
the design of minimum weight

Probabilistic Design
Review the illustrated example of a crank that must support a
single static load

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Dieter: Chapter 11
Risk, Reliability, and Safety: Probabilistic Approach to
Design
Safety Factor
The use of a safety factor is far simpler but with much less
information content
Using a safety factor is a form of derating but the extent of
reduction from the true capacity is not known

Absolute Worse Case Design

In absolute worse case (AWC) design the variables are set at either
the lowest or largest expected values
AWC design, like the use of safety factor, is an approach that
accounts for the statistical nature of the design environment in a
deterministic way

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Dieter: Chapter 11
Risk, Reliability, and Safety: Reliability Theory
Reliability is the probability that a system, component, or
device will perform without failure for a specified period of
time under specified operating conditions
The discipline of reliability engineering basically is a study of
the causes, distribution, and prediction of failure
Definitions
Mean life: The average life of the number of components put on test or
in service, measured over the entire life curve out to wearout
Mean time between failures (MTTF): The sum of survival time (up time)
for all of the components divided by the number of failures
Mean time between failures (MTBF): The mean time between two
successive component failures. MTBF is similar to MTTF, but it is
applied for components or systems that are repaired

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Dieter: Chapter 11
Risk, Reliability, and Safety: Reliability Theory
Constant Failure Rate
The probability distribution of reliability is a negative exponential
distribution
Although an individual component may not have an exponential
reliability distribution, in a complex system with many components
the overall reliability may appear as a series of random events and the
system will follow an exponential reliability distribution

Variable Failure Rate

Mechanical failures and some electronic components, e.g. relays and
thermionic devices, do not exhibit a period of constant failure rate
The most common practice is to consider that failure is distributed
according to the Weibull function

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Dieter: Chapter 11
Risk, Reliability, and Safety: Reliability Theory
System Reliability
Most mechanical and electronic systems comprise a collection of
components
The overall reliability of the system depends on how the individual
components with their individual failure rates are arranged
It is obvious that if there are many components exhibiting series
reliability, the system reliability quickly becomes very low
A system in which the components are arranged to give parallel
reliability is said to be redundant; there is more than one
mechanism for the system functions to be carried out
In a system with full active redundancy all but one component may
fail before the system fails; See Aircraft Example for partial redun.

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Dieter: Chapter 11
Risk, Reliability, and Safety: Reliability Theory
Maintenance and Repair
If a failed component can be repaired while a redundant component
has replaced it in service, then the overall reliability of the system
is improved
If components subject to wear can be replaced before they have
failed, then the system reliability will be improved
Preventive maintenance is aimed at minimizing system failure
Repairing a failed component in a series system will not improve
the reliability, since the system is not operating
However, decreasing the repair time will shorten the period during
which the system is out of service
Maintainability is the probability that a component or system that
has failed will be restored to service within a given time

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Dieter: Chapter 11
Risk, Reliability, and Safety: Design for Reliability
The design strategy used to ensure reliability can fall
between two broad extremes
Fail-safe approach
the one-horse shay approach
Absolute worse-case approach

Two major areas of engineering activity determine the

reliability of an engineering system
Provision for reliability must be established during the earliest
design concept stage, carried through the detailed design
development, and many steps in manufacture
Once the system becomes operational, it is imperative that
provision be made for its continued maintenance during its service

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Dieter: Chapter 11
Risk, Reliability, and Safety: Methods and Techniques
Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
Team-based methodology for identifying potential problems with
new or existing designs

Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)

A technique that provides a systematic description of the
combinations of possible occurrences in a system that can result in
failure or severe accidents

Defects and Failure Modes

Hardware failure
Software failure
Human failure
Organization failure

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Dieter: Chapter 11
Risk, Reliability, and Safety: Design for Safety
Safety may well be the paramount issue in product design
There are three aspects to design for safety
Make the product safe, i.e. design all hazards out of the product
If above not possible, then design in protective devices
If Step 2 cannot remove all hazards, then warn the user of the
product with appropriate warnings like labels, flashing lights, and
loud sounds

Guidelines for Design for Safety

Be familiar with these

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Dieter: Chapter 13
Economic Decision Making

The major engineering infrastructure that built this nation the railroads,
major dams, waterways, and air transportation required a methodology
for predicting costs and balancing them against alternative courses of
action
Mathematics of Time Value of Money
Depreciation
Taxes
Profitability of Investments
Other Aspects of Probability
Inflation
Sensitivity and Break-Even Analysis
Uncertainty in Economic Analysis
Benefit-Cost Analysis

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Dieter: Chapter 14
Cost Evaluation

An engineering design is not complete until we have a good idea of the cost required to build
the design or manufacture the product
Categories of Costs
Methods of Developing Cost Estimates
Cost Indexes
Cost-Capacity Factors
Estimating Plant Cost
Design To Cost
Manufacturing Costs
Value Analysis in Costing
Overhead Costs
Activity-Based Costing
Product Profit Model
Learning Curve
Cost Models
Life Cycle Costing

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Exam #2: Life Cycle Design

Considerations

Primary Text Chapters

Chap 6: Embodiment Design
Chap 7: Modeling and Simulation
Chap 8: Materials Selection & Materials in Design
Chap 9: Materials Processing & Design
Chap 10: Engineering Statistics
Chap 11: Risk, Reliability, and Safety
Chap 13: Economic Decision Making
Chap 14: Cost Evaluation
Secondary Text Chapter
Chap 13: Modeling and Simulation

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