EEE3233

ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS

Chapter 2
The Per-Unit System
Nur Diyana kamarudin
 Learning Outcomes
Students should be able to
• Identify the symbols and draw the one-line
diagram
• Construct the impedance diagram and find
the per unit values.
• Solve the per unit problems of a single-phase
and three-phase circuit.
• Identify the advantages of per unit system.
 Power System Representation :
One Line Diagram
• Represent or portray the interconnection of the power system
components – used extensively in power flow studies
• Also referred as Single-line Diagram
• In a one line diagram, lines on paper (or on a computer screen)
represent wires.
• Advantage: Simplicity
– Rather than drawing all three wires in a three-phase
system, it is normal to simplify things by representing all
three phases with one line – thus the name one line
diagram
– Equivalent circuit of the components are replaced by their
standard symbols
– The completion of the circuit through the neutral is
omitted.
One Line Diagram - Symbols
two-winding
current transformer
transformer

two-winding
voltage transformer
transformer

generator capacitor

bus circuit breaker

transmission line circuit breaker

delta connection fuse

wye connection surge arrestor

static load disconnect

Symbols used in one line diagram (from ANSI and IEEE)

 Exercise
Draw a one line diagram for a simple
power system which composes of the
following equipments :

Generator (1 unit), transformer,

transmission line, transformer and load
 generator

transformer

1 bus coding 2
circuit breaker

L1
line coding

L2 bus
L3
3 L6
transmission line load

L4 L5

4 5

L7

tie line connection

with neighboring
system
 One-line diagram - symbols
• The main component of a one-line (or
single line) diagram are : Buses,
Branches, Loads, Machines, 2 winding
Transformers, Switched Shunts,
Reactor and Capacitor Banks.
 One-line diagram - explanation

• Buses are represented as a dot, circle or a thick line.

• The bus name (EAST500) and number (202) are given, as
well as the voltage measured on the line (510.5kV and
1.021V in per unit).
• Final characteristic given is the angle(-26.1 degree).
• The voltage is indicated by the color of the bus. Red
indicates 500kV
 One-line diagram - explanation
• Branches are represented as a thin line.
• The real power P, as shown on the branch below, flows
from 478MW to -473MW and the reactive power Q, flows
from 89.9MVA flow to -229.4MVA.
• The power flows from positive number to the negative
number, and the number on top is the real power while
the number on the bottom is the reactive power.
• The voltage is indicated by the color of the bus. Red
indicates 500kV
 One-line diagram - explanation
• Loads are represented as a triangle with the ID
number located inside the triangle.
• The real power, PLOAD, is donated by the number
on top(250MW), and the reactive power QLoad, is
denoted by the number on bottom (100Mvar)
• The voltage is indicated by the color of the load. In
this example, black indicates 230kV
 One-line diagram - explanation
• Machines are represented as a circle with the ID number
located inside the circle.
• The real power PGEN, is denoted by the number on top
(321.0MW), and the reactive power QGEN, is denoted by
the number on bottom (142.3RMVAR). The “R” indicates
this machine is in voltage regulation mode, and it is
controlling a specific bus to a voltage set point which
requires it to generate 142.3MVAR.
• The voltage is indicated by the color of the machine. In
this example, red indicates 500kV.
 One-line diagram - explanation
• Two winding transformer are represented as two
separate windings with gap separating them. The arrow
pointing in at the connection reflects the primary side of
the transformer.
• In this example, the primary voltage (1.0000 in per unit
voltage) is given on the primary side of the transformer
and the secondary voltage (1.0000 in per unit voltage), is
given on the secondary side of the transformer.
• The voltage is indicated by the color of the transformer
and is dictated by the primary side voltage. In this
example, purple indicates 21.6kV
 One-line diagram - explanation
• Reactor bank are represented as an inductor at the end
of a line. The number on the top (or on the left if the
reactor is shown vertical) indicates that the real charge
admittance, GSHUNT of the line (3.6MW).
• If you see a “SW” instead of a number, you are looking at
a switched shunt compensator.
• The number on bottom indicates the initial reactive
charge admittance, BSHUNT, of the line ( 490.0MVAR )
• The voltage is indicated by the color of the reactor. In
this example, red indicates 500kV
 One-line diagram - explanation
• Capacitor bank are represented as a capacitor at the end
of a line. The number on the top (or on the left if the
capacitor is shown vertical) indicates that the real
charge admittance, GSHUNT of the line (0.0MW).
• If you see a “SW” instead of a number, you are looking at
a switched shunt compensator.
• The number on bottom indicates the initial reactive
charge admittance, BSHUNT, of the line (-1080.0MVAR ).
• The voltage is indicated by the color of the capacitor.
 One-line diagram - explanation
• Switched shunts are represented as either a capacitor or
inductor at the end of a line. The “SW” shown on top (or
on the left if the shunt is shown vertical) indicates that
this unit is a switched shunt compensator. Permanently
installed reactor or capacitor bank.
• The number on bottom indicates the initial reactive
charge admittance, BINIT(253.MVAR or – 599.6MVAR)
• The voltage is indicated by the color of the shunt. In this
example, red indicates 21.6kV
One line Diagram
Typical medium sized city transmission and sub-transmission system.
 Per Unit System
• The per unit system is widely used in
the power system industry to express
values of voltages, currents, powers,
and impedances of various power
equipment.
• It is mainly used for transformers and
AC machines
One line Diagram and Per unit system

• A one-line diagram is a simplified

graphical representation of a three
phase system, used extensively in
power flow studies
• Per unit system used extensively in
one-line diagram to further simplify
the process
 Per-Unit System
• An interconnected power system typically consists
of many different voltage levels (sizes and nominal
values) given a system containing several
transformers and/or rotating machines.

A simple power system

 Per-Unit System
• To be able to simplifies the analysis of complex power systems
the per-unit-system which choosing a common set of base
parameter in term of which quantities are defined. The
different voltage levels disappear and the overall system
reduces to a set of impedances.

Per-phase, per
unit equivalent
circuit of the
simple power
system
 Per Unit System
• Power system quantities such as voltage,
current and impedance are often expressed
in per unit or percent of specified values.
• Per unit value of any quantity (voltage,
current, power, impedance, torque, etc.) is
defined as the ratio of the quantity to its
based expressed as decimal or :

actual value of the quantity

per unit value of any quantity 
based value
 Base value
• Specify the base values of current and
voltage, base impedance,
kilovoltamperes can be determined
• Quantities and base value selected
voltage, base value in kilovolts, kV
current, base value in ampere, A
 Base values
Generally the following two base values are chosen :
The base power = nominal power of the equipment
The base voltage = nominal voltage of the
equipment
The base current and The base impedance are
determined by the natural laws of electrical circuits
 Base values
• Usually, the nominal apparent power
(S) and nominal voltage (V) are taken
as the base values for power (Sbase) and
voltage (Vbase).
• The base values for the current (Ibase)
and impedance (Zbase) can be
calculated based on the first two base
values.
 Base value
• For single phase system

base kVA 1
Base current, A 
base voltage, kVLN
base voltage, VLN
Base impedance,  
base current, A
 Base value
• For single phase system
2
(base voltage, KVLN )
Base impedance,  
MVA 1
Base power , kW1  base kVA 1
Base power , MW1  base MVA 1
 Base value - example

Base kVA3Φ = 30,000 kVA

and Base kVLL = 120 kVA
therefore Base kVA 1Φ = 30,000 / 3 = 10,000 kVA

and Base kV LN = 120 / √3 = 69.2 kVA

actual value of thequantity

per unit value of any quantity 
based value

For actual line-to-line voltage 108 kV, the line-to-neutral

voltage, VLN is 108/ √3 = 62.3
 Per unit value - example

actual value of thequantity

per unit value of any quantity 
based value
and
Per-unit voltage = 108/120 (3) OR
= 62.3/69.2 (1)
= 0.9
For three-phase power of 18,000 kW,
Per-unit power = 18,000/30,000 (3 ) OR
= 6,000/10,000(1)
= 0.6
 Per unit value
• e.g. in a synchronous generator with
13.8 kV as its nominal voltage, instead
of saying the voltage is 12.42 kV, we
say the voltage is 0.9 p.u.

p. u voltage = 12.42/13.8 = 0.9 p.u

Per Unit System

Vbase Sbase
Sbase
I base 
Vbase
2
Vbase V base
Z base  
I base Sbase
 exercise
• A generator has an impedance of 2.65
ohms. What is its impedance in per-
unit, using bases 500MVA and 22kV
 Base value in 3 Circuit
• Usually, the 3-phase SB or MVAB and line-to-line VB or kVB
are selected
• IB and ZB dependent on SB and VB

S B  3VB I B VB  3I B Z B
VB / 3 VB 
2
SB
IB  , ZB  
3VB IB SB
 Per Unit System
Conversion of Per Unit Values

S I V Z
S pu  I pu  Vpu  Z pu 
S base I base Vbase Z base

Voltage, current, kilovoltamperes and impedance

are quantities often expressed in per unit value
Z Sbase 2
Vbase
Zpu   2 Z Z  Z base Z pu  Z pu
Zbase Vbase Sbase
Transformer Voltage Base

Vb1 Vb2

V1/V2

 V2 
Vb 2    V b1
 V1 
 Per Unit System
Z actual
Z%   100%
Z base
• The percent impedance
• e.g. in a synchronous generator with 13.8 kV
as its nominal voltage, instead of saying the
voltage is 12.42 kV, we say the voltage is 0.9
p.u.
Example : Three-Phase Transformer

Consider, for example, a three-phase two-winding

transformer. The following typical parameters could
be provided by the manufacturer:
Nominal power = 300 kVA total for three phases
Nominal frequency = 60 Hz
Winding 1: connected in wye, nominal
voltage = 25 kV RMS line-to-line
resistance 0.01 pu, leakage reactance = 0.02 pu
Winding 2: connected in delta, nominal
voltage = 600 V RMS line-to-line
resistance 0.01 pu, leakage reactance = 0.02 pu
Magnetizing losses at nominal voltage in % of
nominal current:
Resistive 1%, Inductive 1%
 Example : Three-Phase Transformer

The base values for each single-phase transformer are first

calculated: For winding 1:
Base power 300 kVA/3 = 100e3 VA/phase

Base voltage 25 kV/sqrt(3) = 14434 V RMS

Base current 100e3/14434 = 6.928 A RMS

Base impedance 14434/6.928 = 2083 Ω

Base resistance 14434/6.928 = 2083 Ω

Base inductance 2083/(2π*60)= 5.525 H

 Example : Three-Phase Transformer

For winding 2:

Base power 300 kVA/3 = 100e3 VA

Base voltage 600 V RMS
Base current 100e3/600 = 166.7 A RMS
Base impedance 600/166.7 = 3.60 Ω
Base resistance 600/166.7 = 3.60 Ω
Base inductance 3.60/(2π*60) = 0.009549 H
 p.u. to SI
The value of the winding resistance and leakage
inductances expresses in SI units are
For winding 1: R1=0.01 * 2083 = 20.83 Ω
L1 = 0.02 * 5.525 = 0.1105 H

For winding 2: R2 = 0.01 * 3.60 = 0.0360 Ω

L1 = 0.02 * 0.009549 = 0.191 mH
 p.u. to SI
For the magnetizing branch, magnetizing losses of 1%
resistive and 1% inductive mean a magnetizing resistance
Rm of 100 pu and a magnetizing inductance Lm of 100 pu.
Therefore, the values expressed in SI units referred to
winding 1 are

Rm = 100*2083 = 208.3 kΩ
Lm = 100*5.525 = 552.5 H
 Excercise

1. Calculate base voltage for each region

 excercise
• Region 1
Vbase1 = 13.8 kV
• Region 2
Vbase2 = Vbase1(110kV/13.8kV) = 110 kV
• Region 3
Vbase3 = Vbase2(14.4kV/120kV) = 13.2 kV
 Excercise

2. Calculate corresponding base impedances for each region

 exercise
• Region 1

• Region 2

• Region 3
 Per Unit in 3 Circuit
• Simplified:
– Concerns about using phase or line
voltages are removed in the per-unit
system
– Actual values of R, XC and XL for lines,
cables, and other electrical equipment
typically phase values.
– It is convenient to work in terms of base
VA (base volt-amperes)
 Change of Base
• The impedance of individual generators &
transformer, are generally in terms of
percent/per unit based on their own ratings.
• Impedance of transmission line in ohmic
value
• When pieces of equipment with various
different ratings are connected to a system,
it is necessary to convert their impedances
to a per unit value expressed on the same
base.
 Change of Base
• In other word, since all impedances in any
one part of the a system must be expressed
on the same impedance base when making
computations, it is necessary to have a
means of converting per-unit impedances
from one based to another.
Change of base
 Change of Base
Zold
pu be the per unit impedance on the power base Sold
B

& voltage base VBold , and if Z is actual value , then

Z  S Bold 
Z old
 old     Z 1
pu
ZB  V old 2 
 B 
new
Z pu be the new per unit impedance on the new power base Snew
B

& new voltage base VBnew

Z  S Bnew 
Z new
 new     Z
 V new 2
2
pu
ZB 
 B 
 Change of base

From 1 and 2

Z   Z old
pu 
 
 V old
 B
2 

Sold 
 B 
 Change of Base
Then, the relationship between the old and the
new per unit value is obtained as
2
Snew
 V old

Z new
pu Z old
pu
B
old
B
new

S
B  V
B 
If the voltage base are the same,
 S new

new
Z pu  Z pu  old 
old B

 SB 
 Example
The reactance of a generator designated X” is given as
0.25 per unit based on the generator’s nameplate
rating of 18 kV, 500 MVA. The base for calculations is
20kV, 100 MVA. Find X” on the new base
2
Snew
 V old

Z new
pu Z old
pu
B
old
B
new

S
B  V
B 

pu  0.25
Z old VBold  18 kV B  500 MVA
Sold
new
VB  20 kV Snew
B  100 MVA
 Example
Z old
pu  0 . 25 VB  18 kV
old
B  500 MVA
Sold

VBnew  20 kV Snew
B  100 MVA

2
 100  18 
new
Z pu  X"  0.25    0.0405 per unit
 500  20 
 Change of base

4. Calculate the p.u. resistances and

inductances at G1 and T1
 Exercise
RG1,pu = 0.1 per unit
XG1,pu = 0.9 per unit
RT1,pu = 0.01 per unit
XT1,pu = 0.05 per unit
 Excercise

5. Calculate per unit value for resistance and inductance of

transmission line
• Resistance of transmission line

• Inductance of transmission line

 Exercise

6. Calculate per unit value for resistance and inductance of

T2 and M2
 Exercise

At T2  14.4 kV 
2
 100 MA 
R T 2, pu  (0.01)     0.238 per unit
 13.2 kV   50 MA 
2
 14.4 kV   100 MA 
X T 2,pu  (0.05)     0.119 per unit
 13.2 kV   50 MA 
2
At M2  38.8 kV   100 MA 
R M 2, pu  (0.01)     0.219 per unit
 13.2 kV   50 MA 
2
 38.8 kV   100 MA 
X M 2, pu  (0.05)     2.405 per unit
 13.2 kV   50 MA 
 Exercise

7. Plot per-phase equivalent circuit diagram of the simple

power system above.
 Per-Unit System
• the per-unit-system which choosing a common set of
base parameter in term of which quantities are defined.
The different voltage levels disappear and the overall
system reduces to a set of impedances.
T2’s
impedance
T1’s
impedance

G1’s Transmission
impedance line’s impedance

Motor’s
impedance

Per-phase, per unit equivalent circuit of the simple power system

 Writing Node Equations for
Equivalent Circuit

• Once the per-phase, per unit

equivalent circuit of a power system is
created, it may be used to find the
voltages, currents, and powers present
at various points in a power system.
• Most common technique used to solve
such circuit is nodal analysis
Writing Node Equations for
Equivalent Circuit
The simple three-
phase power
system
containing three
busses connected
by three
transmission
lines, generator
to bus 1, a load
to bus 2 and a
motor to bus 3.
Draw the
impedance
diagram and
respective nodes
 Writing Node Equations for
Equivalent Circuit
The diagram showing current sources at nodes 1, 2
and 3; all other equipments are admittance
Writing Node Equations for
Equivalent Circuit
Writing Node Equations for
Equivalent Circuit
 Advantages
• Transformer equivalent circuit can be
simplified by properly specifying base
quantities.
– Give a clear idea of relative magnitudes of
various quantities such as voltage,
current, power and impedance.
– Avoid possibility of making serious
calculation error when referring quantities
from one side of transformer to the other.
 Advantages
• Per-unit impedances of electrical
equipment of similar type usually lie
within a narrow numerical range when
the equipment ratings are used as base
values.
– Manufacturers usually specify the
impedances of machines and transformers
in per-unit or percent in nameplate
rating.
 Advantages
• The circuit laws are valid in per unit
systems, and the power and voltage
equation are simplified since the
factor √3 and 3 are eliminates in the
per-unit systems.
• Ideal for the computerized analysis and
simulation of complex power system
problems.
 Advantages
• Why Use the Per Unit System Instead of the Standard SI Units?
• Here are the main reasons for using the per unit system:
• When values are expressed in pu, the comparison of electrical quantities with their "normal" values is
straightforward.
• For example, a transient voltage reaching a maximum of 1.42 pu indicates immediately that this voltage
exceeds the nominal value by 42%.
• The values of impedances expressed in pu stay fairly constant whatever the power and voltage ratings.
• For example, for all transformers in the 3 kVA to 300 kVA power range, the leakage reactance varies
approximately between 0.01 pu and 0.03 pu, whereas the winding resistances vary between 0.01 pu and
0.005 pu, whatever the nominal voltage. For transformers in the 300 kVA to 300 MVA range, the leakage
reactance varies approximately between 0.03 pu and 0.12 pu, whereas the winding resistances vary
between 0.005 pu and 0.002 pu.
• Similarly, for salient pole synchronous machines, the synchronous reactance Xd is generally between 0.60
and 1.50 pu, whereas the subtransient reactance X'd is generally between 0.20 and 0.50 pu.
• It means that if you do not know the parameters for a 10 kVA transformer, you are not making a major
error by assuming an average value of 0.02 pu for leakage reactances and 0.0075 pu for winding
resistances.
• The calculations using the per unit system are simplified. When all impedances in a multivoltage power
system are expressed on a common power base and on the nominal voltages of the different
subnetworks, the total impedance in pu seen at one bus is obtained by simply adding all impedances in
pu, without taking into consideration the transformer ratios.
 Review
• Study the examples.
• Try to solve the problems in your
tutorials.
 Impedance Diagram
1 2

G1 G3

T1 T2
G2 G4

Load A Load B

G1 G2 G3 G4