Effect of potentially modifiable

risk factors associated with

myocardial infarction in 52
countries (the INTERHEART
study): case-control study

Presentor: Dr Rajeev Chugh

Background
Although

more than 80% of the global

burden of cardiovascular disease
occurs in low-income and middleincome countries, knowledge of the
importance of risk factors is largely
derived from developed countries.
Therefore, the effect of such factors
on risk of coronary heart disease in
most regions of the world is unknown.

Atherosclerotic

CVD, especially CHD,

remains the leading cause of premature
death worldwide.
CVD affects men and women.
Of all deaths <75 years old in Europe,
42% are due to CVD in women and 38%
in men.
Prevention works: 40% of the
reductions seen in CHD mortality relate
to treatments improved, while >50% to
changes in risk factors.

The Framingham
Study(1948) :
Prospective

cohort study began in 1948

Citizens in Framingham, Mass were
invited to have a free PE, history, CXR,
EKG and lab tests
Subjects were re-evaluated every two
years.
They were not treated; This was not a
clinical trial
Personal characteristics of those who
developed CHD or stroke during F/U were
compared to those who remained well

The Framingham
Study(1948).

Identified factors:
Advanced age
Male sex
Diabetes
Elevated cholesterol
Hypertension
Cigarette smoking
Physical inactivity

Seven Countries Study

1958-1970
Prospective cohort study of 11,575
healthy men in seven countries.
Assessed the link between diet,
serum cholesterol and CAD.
Identified the major variations
among countries in terms of :
Diet: esp the amount of sat. fat
Serum cholesterol levels
Death rates due to CHD

Seven Countries Study.

As

% of saturated fat in each countrys diet

increased, the average cholesterol
increased
As the average serum cholesterol
increased the death rate due to coronary
heart disease increased
Lowest cholesterol levels and lowest
incidence of coronary artery disease in
countries with a Mediterranean diet
Low in animal products and sat. fat
Principal fat = olive oil (mono sat)
Rich in legumes, fruit, fish

INTERHEART :
INTERHEART

is a large, international,
standardised, case-control study,
designed as an initial step to assess
the importance of risk factors for
coronary heart disease worldwide

Objective

:To determine association of

first MI with:
Smoking
Lipids
Hypertension
Diabetes
Obesity
Diet
Physical
Alcohol
Psychosocial
activity
consumption factors*

Methods:
Study

participants were recruited

from 262 centres from 52
countries in Asia, Europe, the
Middle East, Africa, Australia,
North America, and South
America
15152 cases and 14820 controls
Between February, 1999, and
March, 2003

To

identify first cases of acute

myocardial infarction, all patients
(irrespective of age) admitted to the
coronary care unit or equivalent
cardiology ward, presenting within 24
h of symptom onset, were screened.
Cases were eligible if they had
characteristic symptoms plus
electrocardiogram changes indicative
of a new myocardial infarction

At

least one age-matched (up to 5 years

older or younger) and sex-matched control
was recruited per case, using specific
criteria.
Exclusion criteria for controls were identical
to those described for cases, with the
additional criterion that controls had no
previous diagnosis of heart disease or
history of exertional chest pain.
The overall median interval from
recruitment of cases to inclusion of controls
was 1.5 months.

 Hospitalbased

controls (58%) were

individuals who had a wide range of disorders
unrelated to known or potential risk factors for
acute myocardial infarction and were admitted
to the same hospital as the matching case.
Community-based controls (36%) were
attendants or relatives of a patient from a noncardiac ward or an unrelated (not first-degree
relative) attendant of a cardiac patient.
In the remaining controls, 3% were from an
undocumented source and 3% were recruited
through the WHO MONICA study.

Procedures
Structured

questionnaires were
administered and physical examinations
were undertaken in the same manner in
cases and controls.
Information about demographic factors,
socioeconomic status (education, income),
lifestyle (smoking, leisure time, physical
activity, and dietary patterns), personal and
family history of cardiovascular disease, and
risk factors (hypertension, diabetes mellitus)
was obtained.
Psychosocial factors (depression, locus of
control, perceived stress, and life events)
were systematically recorded and integrated
into one score

Height,

weight, waist and hip

circumferences, and heart rate were
determined by a standardised protocol.
Waist and hip circumferences were
measured with a nonstretchable standard
tape measure: waist measurements
were obtained over the unclothed
abdomen at the narrowest point between
the costal margin and iliac crest, and hip
circumferences over light clothing at
the level of the widest diameter around
the buttocks only
Self-reported history of hypertension is
used in the analysis

Non-fasting

blood samples (20 mL) were

drawn from every individual and
centrifuged within 2 h of admission,
separated into six equal volumes, and
frozen immediately at 20C or 70C
after processing.
Centres were instructed to draw blood
from cases within 24 h of symptom onset.
However, because of delays in patient
presentation, especially in some
lowincome countries, blood samples could
only be obtained within 24 h in two-thirds
of cases.

Samples

were shipped in nitrogen vapour

tanks by courier from every site to a
blood storage site, where they were
stored at 160C in liquid nitrogen
(Hamilton, Canada) or at 70C (India and
China).
Blood samples from all countries other
than China were analysed in Hamilton for
total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, and
apolipoproteins B (ApoB) and A1 (ApoA1).
ApoB/ApoA1 ratio as an index of abnormal
lipids in the current analysis

All

data were transferred to the Population

Health Research Institute, McMaster
University, and Hamilton Health Sciences,
Canada, where quality-control checks and
statistical analyses were done.
Data on smoking were missing in 11% of
participants, hypertension in 06%, diabetes
in 07%, psychosocial variables in 11%,
physical activity in 11%, diet in 21%, and
waist and hip measurements in 35%.
Blood samples were available in 21508
(79%) of 27098 cases and controls.

 Current

smokers as individuals who smoked any

tobacco in the previous 12 months and included those
who had quit within the past year.
Former smokers were defined as those who had quit
more than a year earlier.
For waist/hip ratio, tertiles were calculated separately
for men and women based on the overall control data.
The cutoffs used were 090 and 095 in men and 083
and 090 in women.
Cutoffs for ApoB/ApoA1 ratios (deciles and quintiles)
were derived from all controls (men and women).
Regionspecific cutoffs did not alter the results.
Individuals were judged to be physically active if they
were regularly involved in moderate (walking, cycling,
or gardening) or strenuous exercise (jogging, football,
and vigorous swimming) for 4 h or more a week.
Regular alcohol use was defined as consumption three
or more times a week

The

combined psychosocial index was

devised with a combination of the parameter
estimates from the completely adjusted
multivariate logistic regression model.
The score was based on a combination of
depression versus none, stress at work or at
home (general stress variable) versus none,
moderate or severe financial stress versus
minimal or none, one or more life events
versus none, and a locus of control score in
the lower three quartiles versus the top
quartile of the distribution

Statistical analysis
Simple

associations were assessed

with frequency tables and Pearsons 2
tests for two independent proportions.
Statistical analyses and graphics were
produced with SAS version 8.2 (SAS,
Cary, NC, USA) and S-Plus version 6
(Insightful, Seattle, WA, USA).

PARs

(Population attributable risks)

and 99% CIs were calculated for
various risk factors in the study by a
method based on unconditional
logistic Regression
PAR estimates were calculated by the
interactive risk attributable program
software (US National Cancer Institute,
2002).

Results
Between

February, 1999, and March, 2003

15 152 cases and 14 820 controls were
enrolled.
1531 cases were diagnosed as having
unstable angina, 260 had insufficient data,
205 did not have coronary artery disease,
and 695 had a previous myocardial
infarction.
For 74 controls data were missing and 109
had previous coronary heart disease.
Therefore, 12 461 cases and 14 637 controls
are included in the analysis.

9459 cases (76%) and 10851 controls (74%)

were male.

Median age of presentation of

cases

Overall effect of risk

factors

Odds of myocardial infarction according

to number of cigarettes smoked and
ApoB/ApoA1 ratio

Cumulative effect of risk

factors

Reduced risk of acute

myocardial infarction
associated with healthy
lifestyles

Risk in men and women

PARs associated with nine risk

factors in men and women by
geographic region

Risk by age

 583

cases of acute myocardial infarction

subsequently died in hospital.
Odds ratios for fatal myocardial infarction
associated with various risk factors were
similar to those overall smoking (21 for
fatal myocardial infarction vs 30 overall),
diabetes (40 vs
31),
hypertension
(24 vs 25),
abdominal
obesity (15 vs 22), and
lipids (26 vs 39).

Family history
Family

history of coronary heart

disease was associated with an odds
ratio of 155 (99% CI 144167),
adjusted for age, sex, smoking, and
geographic region. The PAR was
120% (99% CI92%151%)
Family history seemed to be slightly
more important in young (PAR148%
[117185]) compared with old
individuals (104%[83130]).

Discussion
This

study shows that nine easily

measured and potentially modifiable
risk factors account for an
overwhelmingly large (over 90%)
proportion of the risk of an initial
acute myocardial infarction.
The effect of these risk factors is
consistent in men and women, across
different geographic regions, and by
ethnic group, making the study
applicable worldwide

The

effect of the risk factors is

particularly striking in young men (PAR
about 93%) and women (about 96%),
indicating that most premature
myocardial infarction is preventable.
The two most important risk factors are
smoking and abnormal lipids.
Psychosocial factors, abdominal
obesity, diabetes, and hypertension
were the next most important risk
factors in men and women

Both

smoking and apolipoproteins

showed a graded relation with the
odds of a myocardial infarction,there
is no safe level of smoking and that if
quitting is not possible, the risk of
myocardial infarction associated with
smoking could be significantly reduced
by a reduction in the numbers smoked

The

prevalence of several risk factors

varied substantially, especially when
subdivided by sex.
Smoking in female controls worldwide
has a prevalence of only 925%
compared with 33% in male controls.
As a result, despite similar odds ratios
in women and men, the PAR
attributable to smoking varied greatly
(16% in women and 44% in men).

 Smoking

cessation is very important in most

male populations worldwide and in women in
North and South America, western Europe,
and Australia and New Zealand.
By contrast, quitting smoking is currently
less important for reducing acute myocardial
infarction in women in most other
geographic regions.

Key results of the South Asian

component of the INTERHEART
Deaths due to acute myocardial infarction (AMI) in
study
south Asians occur at 5-10 years earlier than
western population.
South Asian men encountering AMI were 5.6 yr
younger than women.
The higher risk for AMI in South Asians in their
younger age is largely determined by the higher
levels of risk factors and the nine conventional risk
factors (abnormal lipids, smoking,hypertension,
diabetes, abdominal obesity, psychosocial factors,
consumption of fruits & vegetables, alcohol and
regular physical activity) collectively explain 86
per cent of the AMI risk in south Asians.

Abnormal

Apo-B/ApoA-1 ratio and smoking

are the most important risk factors.
Low education level is associated with
increased risk of AMI worldwide.
Protective lifestyle factors such as leisure
time physical activity and regular intake of
fruits and vegetables are markedly lower
among south Asians than western
population, while harmful risk factors such
as elevated ApoB/Apo A-1 ratio are higher
in south Asian

South

Asians have significantly

higher population attributable risk
associated with waist-hip ratio.
Higher level of risk factors in both
cases and controls under the age
of sixty.
Regular alcohol consumption is not
protective for AMI in south Asians
(OR=1.06; 95% CI, 0.85-1.20).

Unanswered
While explaining the role of conventional risk
factors in the etiology of myocardial
questions
infarction, INTERHEART study also opens up

several unanswered questions such as:

Why do Indians have higher levels of risk
factors even at a younger age?
Why is that CHD/ diabetes occurs at younger
ages and at a lower level of risk factors?
Are these factors a result of geneenvironment interaction? For example, is
there a gene-diet interaction in the Indian
population?

What

is the role of macro- and

micronutrients in Indian Diet?
Do rural-urban migrants have
increased diabetes and obesity?
Does the pattern of migration
influence risk?
What are the potential interventions
to reduce the risk?
Finally, is there an evolutionary basis
for the increased risk of diabetes.

Limitations
First,

a casecontrol design is
potentially open to confounding if
there is differential ascertainment
of risk factors between cases and
controls

Second,

whereas some of the risk

factors were ascertained or
measured with high accuracy (eg,
smoking), others (eg, history of
diabetes or hypertension) were
based on history and therefore
ascertained with some error.

Third,

the correlations between

repeated measures of several
variables (eg, diet or physical
activity) many months apart is
only moderate

Fourth,

data are based on

hospital-based patients with
acute myocardial infarction and
matched controls (mainly from
urban areas) and are therefore
unlikely to reflect the population
prevalence of risk factors in an
entire country or region.

Fifth,

although the effects of

individual risk factors and
combinations of four or five of
them are reasonably robust, our
estimates of the effect of all nine
is model dependent because very
few individuals have eight or nine
risk factors or, conversely, none

Strengths :
First,

the case-control Study

Second, This study included several risk
factors that have previously not been
assessed with conventional risk factors,
including apolipoproteins (ApoB/A1 ratio),
which might be the best marker of the
balance of atherogenic and
antiatherogenic particles, psychosocial
factors, and measures of abdominal
obesity, all of which have added
substantial information to the other
commonly studied risk factors

Third,

the large size of the study

provides high power and precision in
estimates both overall and in
subgroups.
Fourth, the inclusion of large numbers
of individuals from all regions of the
world and multiple ethnic groups
makes this study results broadly
applicable

Conclusion:
Nine

easily measured risk factors are

associated with more than 90% of the
risk of an acute myocardial infarction in
this large global case-control study
These results are consistent across all
geographic regions and ethnic groups
of the world, men and women, and
young and old
Modification of currently known risk
factors has the potential to prevent
most premature cases of myocardial
infarction worldwide

Online

risk calculator

https://rome.phri.ca/interheartris
kscore

Thank You