Chapter 8
External Environments
and Accountability of
Schools
W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011
Selected External Influences and
Constituencies for School Districts
Political and
Legal Patterns
Demographic
Characteristics
Taxpayers
Societal
Conditions
Parents
Colleges/
Universities
Educational
Associations
Economic and
W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011
Market Forces
Unions
School
District
Regulatory
Agencies
Legislatures
Accrediting
Agencies
Information
Technologies
Cultural
Values
Two Perspectives on Environments
ResourceDependencePerspective
Environmentalresources:Fiscal,Personnel,Information,Products
Environmentalresources:SimpleorComplex
Availabilityofresources:ScarcetoMunificence
Dependence:NeedandAvailability
Decisionmakers:Viewtheenvironmentasaplacetogainscarceresources
fortheorganization
InstitutionalPerspective
Limitedemphasisongoals,effectiveness,andefficiency
Schools:Constrainedbyotherinstitutionsofsociety
Administrators:Constrainedbybroaderinstitutions
W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011
Resource-Dependence Perspective
Dependenceischaracterizedastheextentoftheneedforaresourceandits
availability.
Itisdirectlyrelatedtotheneedforresourcescontrolledbyotherorganizations.
Suppliersgainpowertodecidewhetherschoolsgetresourcestheyneedand
determineiftheschoolscanusetheresourcesthewaytheywant.
Iforganizationsareunabletogenerateresourcesinternally,theymustenterinto
externalexchangeswhichmayconsumevitalresourcesand/ordemandchanges
fromtheorganization.(Pfeffer,1982,1997)
W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011
Resource-Dependence Perspective
Resource Continuum
Munificence
Scarcity
Competition for
resources is fierce
Zero-sum game
Limited to basic
academic and
extracurricular
programming
W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011
Survival is easy
Pursue wide-ranging
goals
Abundant curricular
and extracurricular
programs
Administering Task Environments
Uncertainty and dependency threaten or constrain autonomy and drive change;
thus, organizations must cope.
Coping Strategies:
Buffering
Planning and forecasting
Boundary spanning
Adjusting operations
Accommodating structure
W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011
The Environment-Structure Fit
Change the Structure to fit the
Environment
If the environment is stable, a mechanistic structure is an effective
accommodation.
If the environment is unstable, then an organic structure is the better
fit
If the environment is stable and the organizational structure is
organic, a dysfunctional flexibility emerges.
If the environment is unstable and the structure is mechanistic, a
dysfunctional rigidity is produced.
W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011
Accommodating Structure to Environmental
Change
W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011
Administering Task Environments
Interorganizationalcopingstrategies
Partnerships
Cooptation
Politicallobbying
Poolingresources
W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011
Institutional Perspective
Institutionsaremoreorlessagreeduponsetof
rulesthatcarrymeaningforanddeterminethe
actionsofsomepopulationofactors.
Institutionalenvironmentsaresymbolicand
culturalinnature.
Importantideasincludeconformity,diversity,
andstability
W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011
Institutional Perspective
TypesofConformity
Coercivepressuresofgovernmentmandatesand
inducements
Imitativeadoptingstandardresponsesfromother
sourcestoreduceuncertaintyandgainlegitimacy
Normativeprofessionalstandardsandcodesare
spreadacrossorganizations
W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011
Institutional Perspective
Stabilizingforcesineducation:
Centralizedgovernment,professionalassociations,and
coalitionsstandardizeoperatingproceduresandprovidestability
(Meyer&Rowan,1977)
Environmentaldemands,characteristicsofinputsandoutputs,
technicalprocessesbroughtunderjurisdictionofinstitutional
meaningsandcontrol
Supportguaranteedbyagreementsratherthandependentupon
performance.
W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011
Administering Institutional Environments
Bufferingstrategies
Decoupling
Managingtheimage
Boundaryspanningstrategies
Categoricalconformity
Structuralconformity
Proceduralconformity
Educational Administration
Hoy, 2003
Accountability
Accountability plans generally include three components:
Standards to identify the subject matter knowledge and skills to be
learned.
Tests aligned with the standards.
Consequences of differing levels of goal attainment.
W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011
Accountability and Reform
The drive for accountability is based on three underlying
principles:
Schools should be held accountable for higher standards of
performance.
Schools should be provided assistance to build their capacities for
delivering improved education.
Schools must increase the quality and quantity of their performance
outcomes, especially student achievement.
W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011
Federal Reform Initiatives
TheNoChildLeftBehindAct
AYPAcademicYearlyProgress
EBPEvidenceBasedPractice
ScientificallyBasedResearchtoinformpractice
RacetotheTop
AdoptingStandards
BuildingDataSystems
Recruitinganddevelopingeffectiveteachersandprincipals
Turningaroundourlowestachievingschools.
W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011
Campbells Law
Themoreanyquantitativesocialindicatorisusedforsocialdecisionmaking,the
moreitwilldistortandcorrupttheverysocialprocessesitisintendedtomonitor.
Earlywarningtestinginelementaryschoolsmaypushoutstudentswhoarelikely
tofailthetestbecauseboththeschoolandstudentsbelievethatthesestudentsarea
poorbetforfinishinghighschool.Thisisgoodexampleoflookinggoodbutfailing.
Ifaccountabilitypracticesaretobeeffective,theymustshunshorttermsuccesses
infavorofrigoroussystemicchangesthatactuallyimproveschools.
W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011
Practical Imperatives
Keep organizational structures flexible: It is imperative to respond quickly to
environmental constraints.
Nurture healthy relations with local groups and agencies: Parental groups and local
organizations are important aspects of the immediate environment.
Engage the environment: It presents both constraints and opportunities.
Develop internal and external coping strategies: Buffering and bridging are two
general strategies to cope positively with the external environment.
Recognize that schools are institutions: Schools mirror the norms, values, and ideology
of the broader society.
Develop fair accountability systems for teachers: Accountability is an organizational
reality.
Ensure that tests are aligned with standards: Clear and rational alignment limits
conflict and improves success.
Be open to constructive change: Change and reform are integral parts of
contemporary schooling.
Beware of the dysfunctional consequences of high-stakes testing: A focus on
standardized test scores can encourage cheating and limit poor students prospects for
success.
Seek abstract resources such as neighborhood affiliations or school culture: Abstract
resources are more potent than simple ones in school improvement.
Organic vs Mechanistic Structures
Mechanistic
Organic
Individual specialization:
Employees work separately
and specialize in one task
Joint Specialization:
Employees work together and
coordinate tasks
Simple integrating mechanisms:
Hierarchy of authority well-defined
Complex integrating mechanisms:
task forces and teams are primary
integrating mechanisms
Centralization:
Decision-making kept as high as possible.
Most communication is vertical.
Decentralization:
Authority to control tasks is delegated.
Most communication lateral
Standardization:
Extensive use made of rules & Standard
Operating Procedures
Much written communication
Mutual Adjustment:
Face-to-face contact for coordination.
Work process tends to be unpredictable
Much verbal communication
Informal status in org based on size of
empire
Informal status based on perceived
brilliance
Organization is a network of positions,
corresponding to tasks. Typically each
person corresponds to one task
Organization is network of persons or
teams. People work in different capacities
simultaneously and over time
