Respiration
Respiration is the process by which the chemical
energy of "food" molecules is released and
captured in the form of high energy molecules
such as ATP. Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
can all be used as fuels for respiration.
C6H12O6 + 6O2
6H2O + 6 CO2
The energy released is trapped for use by all the
energy-consuming activities of the cell.
Respiration is also called cellular respiration
Adenosine Triphosphate
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is the universal energy
carrier (currency) of the cell.
It is made from the nucleotide Adenosine
monophosphate (AMP). This nucleotide consists of
a ribose (5C) sugar, a nitrogenous base (adenine)
and a phosphate group.
AMP condenses with a phosphate group to produce
ADP, which subsequently condenses with a
phosphate group to produce ATP.
AMP + 2Pi ADP + Pi ATP
The energy used to add Pi to ADP comes from
oxidation of sugar
Adenosine Triphosphate Contd
Adenosine monophosphate (AMP)
Respiration Contd
Respiration occurs in two phases:
glycolysis, which is the breakdown of
glucose to pyruvic acid
Kreb cycle, a process in which there is the
complete oxidation of pyruvic acid to carbon
dioxide and water
In eukaryotes, glycolysis occurs in the cytosol.
The Kreb cycle takes place in mitochondria.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway, which consists
of about 10 enzymatic steps.
It involves the oxidation of glucose to pyruvate (a
3C compound), and this is accompanied by the
net generation of 2 ATP molecules.
It takes place in the cytoplasm and does not
require the presence of oxygen.
Glycolysis is divided into three stages: 1.
Phosphorylation of glucose; 2. Lysis to produce
two 3C sugar phosphates;
3. Oxidation by dehydrogenation
Glycolysis
Glycolysis
Glycolysis Contd
Overall, two ATP molecules are used for
phosphorylation reactions, while four ATP
molecules are produced.
This results in a net gain of two ATP molecules.
The fate of pyruvate depends on the availability of
oxygen in the cell.
If oxygen is present, pyruvate will enter a
mitochondrion and get completely oxidized to CO 2
and water.
If oxygen is unavailable, pyruvate will be converted
to ethanol (yeast) or lactate (muscle).
Aerobic Respiration
In aerobic respiration, the pyruvate from glycolysis
is completely oxidized to carbon dioxide and
water using oxygen (oxygen dependent stage).
In the first stage, pyruvate is broken down to
carbon dioxide and hydrogen. This takes place in
the matrix of the mitochondria via a series of
reaction called the Krebs Cycle.
In the second stage, hydrogen is oxidized by
oxygen to form water. This takes place by a
series of reaction in the mitochondria cristae
(electron transport chain).
Mitochondrion
Mitochondrion
Aerobic Respiration Contd
Each pyruvate molecule (3C) is converted to
acetylcoenzyme A (acetylcoA 2C), which allows
it to enter the mitochondrion. CO2 molecule is
released in the process.
The mitochondria matrix is the site of the Kreb
Cycle and the formation of acetylcoA allows the
product of glycolysis to enter the Kreb cycle.
The conversion of pyruvate to AcetylcoA includes a
dehydrogenation and the hydrogen released
results in the reduction to NAD to produce NADH.
Aerobic Respiration Contd
NADH oxidation to NAD occurs on the inside
of the inner membrane is catalyzed by a
dehydrogenase enzyme. The cristae give a
large surface area to take these enzymes
so NAD is recycled quickly.
NAD+ + 2H NADH + H+
NADH is the hydrogen carrier, which
releases the hydrogen to oxygen to form
water in the electron transport chain.
Kreb Cycle
Kreb Cycle Contd
For every turn of the cycle for the oxidation of the
acetyl group from glycolysis
Two carbon atoms are lost as carbon dioxide in
two decarboxylation reactions.
Four dehydrogenation reactions causes
hydrogen to be added to the hydrogen carriers,
resulting in the formation of 3 NADH and 1 FADH
One high energy molecule is formed (ATP or
GTP).
Three molecules of water is used, as they are
needed as a source of oxygen in
decarboxylation reactions.
Electron Transport Chain
The energy released as electrons pass down
the gradient from NADH to oxygen is
harnessed by three enzyme complexes of
the respiratory chain (I, III, and IV).
They pump protons (H+) against their
concentration gradient from the matrix
of the mitochondrion into the
intermembrane space (an example of
active transport).
Electron Transport Chain
Electron Transport Chain
As the H+ ion concentration increases
(which is the same as saying that the pH
decreases), a strong diffusion gradient is
set up. The only exit for these protons is
through the ATP synthase complex.
As in chloroplasts, the energy released as
these protons flow down their gradient is
harnessed to the synthesis of ATP. The
process is called chemiosmosis and is an
example of facilitated diffusion.
Amount of ATP Produced
Most of the ATP is generated by the proton
gradient that develops across the inner
mitochondrial membrane.
The number of protons pumped out as
electrons drop in energy level from NADH,
through the respiratory chain to oxygen,
produces enough energy that is
theoretically large enough to generate 3
ATPs per electron pair (but only 2 ATPs for
each pair donated by FADH 2) as they
return through ATP synthase, .
Amount of ATP Produced Contd
With 12 pairs of electrons removed from each
glucose molecule, 10 by NAD+ (so 10x3=30); and
2 by FADH2 (so 2x2=4), this could generate 34
ATPs.
Add to this the 4 ATPs that are generated by the 3
exceptions and one arrives at 38. But the energy
stored in the proton gradient is also used for the
active transport of several molecules and ions
through the inner mitochondrial membrane into
the matrix.
NADH is also used as reducing agent for many
cellular reactions.
Overall Output for Aerobic
Respiration
Glycolysis
Pyruvate
Acetyl
coA
Krebs
cycle
TOTAL
CO
2
ATP
NADH +
H+
10(NADH +
H+)
2(FADH +
H+)
6CO 4ATP
2
FADH +
H+
Electron Transport (Respiratory) Chain
ATP
NAD+
ATP
FADH+H+
Fe3+ Cu+
NADH Dehydrogenase
1/2O2
Cytochrome
Cytochrome
oxidase
NADH+H+
FAD+
Oxidized
Fe2+ Cu2+
H 2O
Reduced oxidized
ATP
Fe is a part of a haem group in the cytochrome protein
complex; while Cu is a part of a group of proteins called
cytochrome oxidase.
Overall Activity of the Electron Transport Chain
Entering
12H2 in the form of
10NADH + H+
2FADH + H+
TOTAL
Produced
30ATP +
10H2O
4ATP + 2H2O
Use
d
5O2
O2
34 ATP +
6O2
12Hof
2O3 ATP and H is
Each NADH results in production
released to be combined with O2 to form H2O.
Each FADH results in the production of 2 ATP.
Anaerobic Respiration
Many microorganisms use anaerobic respiration
as their major source of ATP.
Some bacteria have to live where there is low
levels of oxygen. They are called obligate
anaerobes.
Organisms such as yeast or tapeworm can
respire aerobically or anaerobically. They are
called facultative anaerobes.
Anaerobic Respiration Contd
The first part of anaerobic respiration is glycolysis. A
net of 2 ATP and 2 NADH are produced.
In aerobic respiration, H from NADH is reacted to
form H2O. However, in the absence of oxygen
(anaerobicity), Hydrogen is added to pyruvate.
In Fungi such as yeast
Pyruvate acetaldehyde (ethanal) + CO2
The reaction is catalysed by pyruvate decarboxylase
Ethanal (CH3-CHO) + NADH + H+ ethanol +
NAD+
Catalysed by alcohol dehydrogenase
Anaerobic Respiration in Muscle Tissue
Pyruvate + NADH + H+ Lactate
+ NAD+
Catalysed by lactate dehydrogenase.
No CO2 is produced
Only a net of 2 ATP is produced in the
glycolysis stage of glucose oxidation
Oxygen Debt
Oxygen debt (deficit) is the amount of
oxygen that was needed, but not
supplied from outside the body by
breathing.
