1

Classroom Rules:
1. I talk, you listen
2. I dont allow:
A. Heads on desk
B. Feet on desk
C. Going to sleep in class
D. MP3 players
3. Mobile phones are to be off, or on silent unless
OKd with me, and in you bag (not on desk)
4. Should they be OKd, and you receive a call, you
will answer it outside the classroom
5. No SMS-ing in class
6. Keith Butlers number is: 0417 637 909

Topics (from Learning Outcomes)

10. Three-phase synchronous machines
operating principles
construction feature
application
11. Three-phase synchronous machines
effects of load changes
effects of excitation change
load/current characteristics
12. Single phase synchronous machines
alternators
motors
applications

Assessment
(a)All pracs must be completed
A final written exam will be given on the
learning outcomes covered. Should a
student fail, they will be allowed one
further attempt during block. Should
they fail this they will be allowed one
further attempt within six weeks of
completing the block. Should they fail this
they will be in a Show Cause situation.

500 KW Genset / Generator Set, powered with a Cummins VTA28G1 Engine

2 x 14MW Synchronous Motors

apparently, they use permanent magnets!
9

10

3 phase Dunlite machine

11

12

Synchronous machines are not

just the big units, but they can
be small also.

13

14

AC Supply

V
I
Time->

Current is in phase
with voltage.
15

AC supply

V
I

V
I

Current lags the

Voltage by 90o
16

AC Supply

Current appears to pass through the capacitor.

In reality, it is charging in one direction, and then
discharging and recharging in the other direction.
But if an ammeter were placed in series it would
most definitely read a current.
17

AC Supply

Current leads the

Voltage by 90o
18

Both Inductors and Capacitors oppose, or resist

current flow when connected to AC supplies.
This opposition to current flow is called:
Inductive reactance, in inductors. (XL)
Capacitive reactance in capacitors. (XC)
While it opposes current flow, it is NOT called resistance.
Current flow through resistance produces HEAT.
Current flow in inductors and capacitors doesnt!

19

20

Generator / Transformer / Motor

21

Motor

N
B
C

?????

A
B

Why isnt a neutral run to a balanced

three phase Star connected load?
22

Motor

A
0A
N
B
C

0V

0V

A
B

Because the Star point is at 0V

And the neutral is at zero volts also.
So if they were joined no current would flow.
So why join it?
23

Motor

A
C

B
C

A
B

The neutral is not connected to a balanced

three phase star connected load.
Only connected to unbalanced loads!!!

24

Transformer
S

A
B

F
F

Generator / Transformer / Motor

25

Swapped

Transformer
F

A
B

S
S

Generator / Transformer / Motor

26

3-phase Transformer Secondary

Note that all windings are connected in series, with the two
ends joined together.
27

If we did that with three batteries, there would be major

problems!
28

Transformer

F
S

VC

VB

VA

The voltmeter should read the sum of the three voltages?

Right?
The voltmeter reads the phasor sum of the voltages.
29

Transformer

F
S

VC

VB

VA

The voltmeter reads, in effect, the distance between the

beginning of VA and the end of VC. ie. 0V
We can connect the two ends together because the
phasor sum adds up to zero!
30

Transformer

No Arc!

VC

VB

VA

The voltmeter reads, in effect, the distance between the

beginning of VA and the end of VC. ie. 0V
We can connect the two ends together because the
phasor sum adds up to zero!
31

32

STAR
VL = 3 VPH
IL = IPH

Generator
P = 3 x VPH x IPH x Cos
= 3 x VL/3 x IL x Cos
= 3/3 x VL x IL x Cos
= 3 VL x IL x Cos

DELTA
IL = 3 IPH
VL = VPH

Load
P = 3 x VPH x IPH x Cos
= 3 x VLx IL/3 x Cos
= 3/3 x VL x IL x Cos
= 3 VL x IL x Cos 33

NOT:
P = 415 x I x pf.

P = 3 VL x IL x Cos

34

Three Single Phase Power Equations:

True Power = Watts = V x I x Cos
Apparent Power = VA = V x I
Reactive Power = VARs = V x I x Sin
Power Factor = Cos
where Cos = Cosine of the angle
between Voltage
and Current

35

This can be put as a triangle:

VA

Vars

Phase angle
between current
and volts

Watts
VA2 = Watts2 + Vars2

36

Alternators, where the windings are limited by the

current through them, are rated in VA.
To rate them in watts, (ie. watts delivered to the load)
would give no idea of the current through them.

Load 3 = 14.14A at 45

P = V x I x Cos 45
= 240 x 14.14 x 0.707
= 2.4kW

V=240V
Load 1 = 10A

P = V x I x Cos 0
= 240 x 10 x 1
= 2.4kW

Load 2 = 20A at 60

P = V x I x Cos 60
= 240 x 20 x 0.5
= 2.4kW

37

Q What dictates the phase angle of the current

supplied by a single alternator supplying a single load?
A The load

Load 3 = 14.14A at 45

P = V x I x Cos 45
= 240 x 14.14 x 0.707
= 2.4kW

V=240V
Load 1 = 10A

P = V x I x Cos 0
= 240 x 10 x 1
= 2.4kW

Load 2 = 20A at 60

P = V x I x Cos 60
= 240 x 20 x 0.5
= 2.4kW

38

Al currents here take the same power

Constant power line

39

Al currents here take the same power

Higher power

40

Al currents here take the same power

Constant power line

41

Al currents here take the same power

Lower power

42

43

44

Lo

ss
es

Alternator
Prime
Mover

Mechanical Energy

- Diesel Engine
- Steam Turbine
- Small petrol engine

Alternator

Electrical Energy

Alternator:
Pin = Pout + Losses

Alternator:
Pout
Eff% =
x 100
Pin

45

Lo
s

se

Synchronous Motor

Electrical
Energy
MSB

Motor
Pin = Pout + Losses

Motor

Mechanical Energy

Load

Motor:
Pout
Eff% =
x 100
Pin
46

Synchronous Machine
Electrical
Power

Stator
- Identically wound
to an induction motor.
- Connected to supply.

DC
Supply

Rotor
- Constant DC field
- Connected to supply
via sliprings.
47

SYNCHRONOUS
MOTOR

The stator produces a rotating magnetic field

exactly the same as an induction motor.
The rotor is a magnet and locks in to the RMF
Rotor travels at SYNCHRONOUS SPEED.

48

Synchronous Machine
Electrical
Power

DC
Supply

If a synchronous motor is OVER driven by the load

(eg electric train going down a hill), then it will
generate power, still at synchronous speed.
If an alternator coupled to the grid is UNDER driven
by the prime mover (eg steam stops), then it will
motor, and drive the turbine at synchronous speed. 49

Synchronous Machine
Electrical
Power

DC
Supply

In other words, the two machines are identical in

construction.

50

51

Characteristic of WEG Induction Motors.

3000RPM

1500RPM

1000RPM

4kw

7.8A, .87pf

8.2A, .82pf

9A, .74pf

11A, .63pf

22kw

39A, .87pf

41A, .83pf

42A, .80pf

47A, .74pf

110kw

182A, .90pf

200A, .84pf

205A, .80pf

203A, .81pf

150kw

242A, .90pf

265A, .87pf

279A, .80pf

278A, .77pf

185kw

310A, .88pf

315A, .86pf

343A, .80pf

348A, .78pf

220kw

362A, .89pf

375A, .86pf

408A, .78pf

412A, .78pf

What is the
tendency as RPM
gets lower?

750RPM

Lower the RPM,

Larger value IS
More lagging IS

52

So why use a Synchronous Motor?

Uses:
Low Speed Drives. Low speed induction motors
draw very large currents at poor power factors.
This cannot be altered or corrected. In
synchronous motors, the p.f. can be altered to
cause the motor to draw minimum current. (The
alternative is to use a high speed induction
motor through a gearbox.)
Power Factor Correction
Constant Speed drives

53

54

55

56

2 basic types:
Cylindrical rotor
Salient Pole

Salient Pole Rotor

-Low speed
-Diesel Prime Mover
-Hydro systems

Cylindrical Rotor
-High speed
-Steam Turbine
57

58

59

60

61

62

63

Small salient pole synchronous machine rotor

www.tecowestinghouse.com

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

Lo
s

se

Synchronous Motor

Electrical
Energy
MSB

Motor
Pin = Pout + Losses

Motor

Mechanical Energy

Load

Motor:
Pout
Eff% =
x 100
Pin
75

Same as an induction motor.

76

A1
2-Pole Machine
ie. 3000RPM

A2

77

78

A1
2-Pole Machine
ie. 3000RPM

C2

B2

In reality, the coils

span more slots in
a 2-pole motor.
B1

C1

A2

Notice that for a

two pole stator we
have a 2-pole rotor

79

N
S
C

4-pole machine

A four pole stator

must have a four
pole rotor

80

N
S

S
N

+
Flux
-

Time->

Resultant flux =
1.5 x flux of one phase

81

+
Flux
-

Time->

S
Resultant flux =
1.5 x flux of one phase

82

3 4 5 6
+
Flux
-

Time->

83

1 2 3 4 5 6
+
Flux
-

Time->

So the flux rotates one full rev in one cycle,

for our two pole machine.
84

1 2 3 4 5 6
+
Flux
-

Time->

Because the flux is a constant value, it gives:

1. Very quiet operation
2. Constant torque as the rotor rotates.
85

1 2 3 4 5 6
+
Flux
-

This rotating magnetic field rotates at:

3000RPM for a 2-pole motor
1500RPM for a 4-pole motor

Time->

86

1 2 3 4 5 6
+
Flux
-

Time->

To reverse the direction of rotation:

reverse any two phases to the motor.
87

N = 120f/P
where N = RPM
f = frequency
P = Number of poles (per phase).
So the speed of the rotating magnetic field is
affected by:
Frequency, and
Number of poles.

88

As the rotating magnetic field rotates, the

rotor is locked in synchronism with it and is
dragged along for the ride.
89

As the rotating magnetic field rotates, the

rotor is locked in synchronism with it and is
dragged along for the ride.
90

What will happen as a load is put on the shaft?

91

What will happen as a load is put on the shaft?

92

The load tries to slow it down.

But it must do synchronous speed!
So it stretches the lines of flux.
93

C/L of Rotor Field

Torque Angle

C/L of RMF

94

If the lines stretch to breaking point (ie too

much load), then the rotor stalls
This is referred to as Pull Out Torque.

95

What would the Torque Curve look like?

Torque

Torque Curve for an

induction motor
0

RPM

Ns
96

What would the Torque Curve look like?

Pull out
Torque

Torque Curve for a

Synchronous Motor
Torque
Zero Torque below
synchronous speed
0

RPM

Ns
97

Starting a Synchronous Motor?

1. Amortisseur winding

98

99

Rotor Construction

Squirrel Cage
100

101

102

Starting a Synchronous Motor?

1. Amortisseur winding
This gets the motor up to speed as an
induction motor. When it is close to
synchronous speed it will lock in.
2. Shorting the rotor DC winding and
starting it as a wound rotor motor.
When it is close to synchronous speed,
the short is removed and DC is applied
to the rotor. It will (hopefully) lock
in.
103

Starting a Synchronous Motor?

3. Using a pony motor to get the
synchronous motor up to speed, then
applying AC to the stator and DC to
the rotor.
(Not applicable if there is a high
starting torque load connected)
Note that these starting methods will only
work if the load on the motor at start can be
reduced or eliminated.

104

 Hunting is rhythmic fluctuations of the

RPM around an average value.
If not subdued, hunting can cause
the rotor to swing out of synchronism.
Amortisseur windings also reduce hunting.

105

Revs

Time
106

SS

N N

And all this while it is whizzing

around at synchronous speed!
107

And all this while it is whizzing

around at synchronous speed!
108

109

Phasor Diagram of Synchronous Motor

Vinduced

Vsupply

Induced in the
stator from
the rotor

110

Phasor Diagram of Synchronous Motor

Vinduced

VR

Vsupply
Isupply

Torque angle

111

Phasor diagram for increased load:

(Excitation current held constant)
VR

Vinduced
Vinduced

Vsupply
Isupply

Increased load = Increased Torque Angle

Increasing the load increases the power taken from supply
112

Phasor diagram for increased excitation:

(Constant Load)
Constant load = Constant Power line

Vinduced
Vinduced

Vsupply

113

Phasor diagram for increased excitation:

(Constant Load)
Constant load = Constant Power line

Vinduced

Vsupply

114

Phasor diagram for increased excitation:

(Constant Load)
Constant load = Constant Power line

Vinduced

Isupply

VR

Vsupply

So to force the supply current leading,

we INCREASE excitation
115

Phasor diagram for decreased excitation:

(Constant Load)
Constant load = Constant Power line

VR

Vinduced

Vsupply

Isupply

116

Phasor diagram for decreased excitation:

(Constant Load)
Constant load = Constant Power line

Vinduced

VR

Vsupply

Isupply
So to force the supply current lagging,
we DECREASE excitation

117

Constant load = Constant Power line

VR

Vinduced

Isupply
Vsupply

VR

Vinduced

Vsupply

Isupply

Vinduced

VR

Vsupply

118

With a constant load, changing excitation changes

the phase angle and value of supply current.
Constant load = Constant Power line

Vsupply
Isupply

By increasing the DC excitation current to the rotor,

the synchronous motor can act as a capacitor
It can be used for power factor correction.
119

Lag

50
%

lo

ad

Stator Current

Unity pf

Lead

Excitation Current

120

Deductions From Vee Curves

At any particular load there is a certain value of rotor
current which gives a minimum value of stator current and
unity pf.
If the rotor current is altered either way, the stator
current will increase, and pf will decrease away from 1.
For any given load there is a certain value of rotor current
below which the rotor will fall out of synchronism.
For any given load there are two values of rotor current that
will give identical values of stator current. The lower value
gives a lagging pf, and the higher value gives a leading pf.

121

ad
lo

50
%

lo

ad

pf=1

75
%

Stator Current

Stability
limit

Lead

Lag
Excitation Current

122

Per unit
Power output

0.8 pf lag

Unity

0.8 pf lead

123

124

125

Points:
At a set load there is a value of excitation that
will give minimum line current.
Reducing OR increasing excitation from this value
will only increase line current.
At any other value of line current, there are two
values of excitation current that can produce this.
If a synchronous motor is heavily loaded, supply
current may not be able to be driven highly
leading.
If a synchronous motor is lightly loaded, supply
current can be driven highly leading.
126

Single Phase Synchronous Motors

Used when constant speed is critical, with low torque
requirements. They have low efficiency, hence made in small sizes.
Application:

clocks
record players
timers
recorders
communications
servo installations

Two main types:

Reluctance motor
Hysteresis motor

127

Reluctance Motor
Stator
Stator same as a single phase, split
phase motor.
Centrifugal Switch operates at 75%
synchronous speed to open circuit the
start winding.

Two pole, 3000 RPM

rotor

Rotor
Assembled from laminated sheets
with defined teeth cut away. This
forms salient poles.
Windings are of the squirrel-cage
type.
Number of rotor poles equals the
number of stator poles.

128

Reluctance Motor
Operation
Starts as an induction motor, with slip.
A single phase stator has a Start and Run winding. At
75% centrifugal the centrifugal switch operates.
As the load is light there is small slip
The salient poles become permanently magnetised by the
stator field
The salient poles will then lock to the stator field.
Once locked into synchronism the motor will continue to
operate at synchronous speed.
Not as much power output as a similar physical size 1-phase
motor.

129

Hysteresis Motor
Rotor
Constructed from hardened steel rings, instead of thin,
magnetically soft, silicon steel laminations.
Hysteresis opposes any change once the flux is created,
so the rotor will lock into the RMF like a permanent magnet.

Stator
Often a shaded pole stator principle is used.
If the shaded pole principle is used then the motor is self
starting.
Magnetic poles are established in the rotor.
These poles lock to the stator poles.
The rotor runs at synchronous speed determined by the
poles and frequency.

130

131

Why generate AC? Why not DC?

Large brushless DC generators are not possible
Large brushless AC alternators are!
DC cant be transformed through a transformer.
AC can go through a transformer.
Why do we want to transform it?
It is easier to transmit to distant places
at higher voltages as the current
will be lower. (P=V x I)
Induction motors are simpler and cheaper than
DC motors
132

133

Generating an AC Voltage

N
S

134

Generating an AC Voltage

+
Volts

Time->

135

Generating an AC Voltage

N
S

+
Volts

Time->

136

Generating an AC Voltage

+
Volts

Time->

137

Generating an AC Voltage

+
Volts

Time->

138

Generating an AC Voltage

+
Volts

Time->

139

Generating an AC Voltage

N
S

+
Volts

Time->

140

3-Phase

Generating a AC Voltage

N
S

141

3-Phase

Generating a AC Voltage

Require:
Three sets of coils
physically displaced
from each other by
120 electrical.

+
Volts

Time->

142

3-Phase

Generating a AC Voltage

VC
N

VA

VB

143

3-Phase

Generating a AC Voltage
A1

A2

144

3-Phase

Generating a AC Voltage
A1

B2

C2

C1

B1

A2
145

3-Phase

Generating a AC Voltage

N
S
C

4-pole machine

A four pole stator

must have a four
pole rotor

146

Alternator
Reasons for having the three phase winding on the
stator rather than the rotor:
More space on the stator for the three phase
winding.
Only one, low voltage winding on the rotor.
Easier to insulate.
Less problems with centrifugal force.
Only two sliprings required rather than four
(3-ph + N)

147

Electrical
Power

Stator
- Connected to load.

Magnetic Field

Alternator
Mechanical
Power

Rotor
- Constant DC field
- Connected to its own DC
supply via sliprings.
148

Alternator
Alternator

Petrol
Engine

Q: What keeps an alternator producing 50Hz under all

load conditions?
A: The governor on the prime mover. It detects any
drop in speed, and tries to speed the unit up.

149

150

Alternator Excitation Curve

VOUT
(No Load)

IFIELD
151

Alternator

Internal
Impedance

XL
R

Load
Alt

152

Resistive Load
VGEN
VZ
ILOAD

VOUT

VL

VR

VR = Internal Resistance of the alternator

VL = Internal Reactance of the alternator
VZ = Internal Impedance of the alternator

153

Resistive Load
VGEN
VZ
ILOAD

VOUT

VL

VR

Notice that terminal volts DROP as load increases

Load current and p.f. are dictated by the LOAD!
154

Inductive Load
V

VGEN

VOUT VR

ILOAD
Parallel

155

Inductive Load
V

VOUT VR

VGEN
V

ILOAD
Now there is a greater voltage drop under load
156

Capacitive Load
VGEN

ILOAD

VOUT
Parallel
Now there is a voltage RISE under load
Because of the voltage rise under load, it is
not desirable to run alternators at a
leading power factor.
157

Effect of Power Factor on

Output Voltage
Leading pf
Output
Voltage

Unity pf
Lagging pf

Load Current
158

Voltage Regulation

%Voltage Regulation =

(VNL VFL)
VFL

x 100

eg An alternator output falls from 240V to 200V

with constant excitation.
Calculate the % voltage regulation.
(Ans: 20%)

159

Alternators - stand alone

Summary:
When an alternator is standing by itself with a single load:
Output voltage is affected by excitation current
Output frequency is affected by input power to the
alternator.

160

Alternators tied to the Grid

When an alternator is tied to the grid, you cannot change:
Grid voltage
Grid frequency
So the output voltage of the alternator will not change, and
the output frequency of the alternator will not change.
Notice that, for a stand alone alternator with stand alone
load, these are the two things that changed when:
(a) the excitation was altered, and
(b) the power input to the alternator was increased
(ie. Put the foot down on the prime mover)
161

Alternators tied to the Grid

1. Altering Excitation.

VGEN
VZ

ILOAD

VL

VOUT VR

If excitation is increased, and VOUT cannot alter, VGEN

will increase and push the triangle over.
162

Alternators tied to the Grid

1. Altering Excitation.

Constant Power Line

(Output power of the
alternator has not
Changed)

ILOAD

VOUT VR

VGEN
V

If excitation is increased, and VOUT cannot alter, VGEN

will increase and push the triangle over.
Note that input power to the alternator is not changing,
so output power does not change either.
163

Alternators tied to the Grid

1. Altering Excitation.

ILOAD

VOUT VR

VGEN
V

If excitation is reduced, and VOUT cannot alter, VGEN

will reduce and pull the triangle back.
This drives the load current lagging
164

Alternators tied to the Grid

1. Altering Excitation.
VGEN
ILOAD

VL
VZ

VOUT

VR

If excitation is reduced, and VOUT cannot alter, VGEN

will reduce and pull the triangle back.
This will drive the load current leading
165

Alternators tied to the Grid

2. Altering input power to the alternator.
VGEN
VZ

ILOAD

VL

VOUT VR

If input power is reduced, and frequency and VOUT

cannot alter, output power will reduce.
166

Alternators tied to the Grid

2. Altering input power to the alternator.
VGEN
VZ

ILOAD

VL

VOUT VR

If input power is reduced, and frequency and VOUT

cannot alter, output power will reduce.
167

Alternators tied to the Grid

2. Altering input power to the alternator.
VGEN
VZ

ILOAD

VOUT VR

VL

Size of triangle
reduces

If input power is reduced, and frequency and VOUT

cannot alter, output power will reduce.
168

Alternators tied to the Grid

2. Altering input power to the alternator.
VGEN

VZ
VL

VR

ILOAD

VOUT

Size of triangle
reduces

If input power is reduced, and frequency and VOUT

cannot alter, output power will reduce.
169

Alternators tied to the Grid

2. Altering input power to the alternator.
VGEN
VZ

ILOAD

VL

VOUT VR

If input power is increased, and frequency and VOUT

cannot alter, output power will increase.
170

Alternators tied to the Grid

2. Altering input power to the alternator.
VGEN
VZ

ILOAD

VL

VOUT VR

If input power is increased, and frequency and VOUT

cannot alter, output power will increase.
171

Alternators tied to the Grid

2. Altering input power to the alternator.
VGEN
VZ

ILOAD

VL

VOUT VR

If input power is increased, and frequency and VOUT

cannot alter, output power will increase.
172

Alternators tied to the Grid

2. Altering input power to the alternator.
VGEN

VL

VZ

ILOAD
VOUT

VR

If input power is increased, and frequency and VOUT

cannot alter, output power will increase.
173

Alternators - tied to the Grid

Summary:
Changing excitation changes the pf of output current.
Changing input power changes output power

Increasing excitation drives load current lagging

Reducing excitation drives load current leading
Increasing input power increases output power
Reducing input power reduces output power

Output frequency and voltage do not change.

174

Alternators stand alone

Summary:
Changing excitation changes output voltage.
Changing input power changes RPM, which changes
output frequency.

Here, output frequency and voltage do change

175

Paralleling Alternators
To parallel alternators (or parallel one onto the
grid), the following criteria must be met:

Output voltage must be the same

Output frequency must be the same
Phase rotation must be the same
Supply voltage must be in phase

It is understood that they must both produce the

same waveform a sine wave!
176

Alternator Rating
Alternators are rated according to:
Frequency
Voltage
Current
kVA
The frequency dictates the RPM (3000, 1500, etc).
Voltage and Current give the kVA rating.
177

Efficiency
Losses:
By far the main loss in an alternator is HEAT loss.
If an alternator can be kept cool, more power can
be obtained from it. ie. Instead of a 300MW
machine, it will become a 500MW machine.
More power must be put into it to get this
increased output power.
Cooling large alternators is a big deal! They are
often cooled using hydrogen.

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Efficiency
Losses:
Copper Losses:
I2R losses in the stator winding
I2R losses in the rotor winding
Iron Losses:
Hysteresis loss in stator
Eddy current Loss in stator
Friction and windage
179

Magnetic Field

Electrical
Power

Stator

Single Phase Alternators

Mechanical
Power

Regulator

180

181

Single Phase Alternators

These are usually low rated units for portable use.
Prime mover is usually a small petrol or diesel engine.
The engine speed is kept constant by a governor.
This speed will usually be either 3000RPM or 1500RPM
Output voltage is kept constant using an automatic voltage
regulator. This senses the output voltage and adjusts the
rotor excitation current automatically.
They are usually self exciting, so if the load is left on at
start, they may not build up output voltage.
Many small alternators are brushless.
Usually, neither side is earthed. This is called a FLOATING
system.

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Brushless Alternators
3-phase
out

AC is
sampled

Rotor

Field P.S.
Regulator

DC

Note: Self Excited

184

Brushless Alternators
3-phase
out

Rotor

Regulator

3-phase
out

Prime
Mover
185

Small Alternators
-Factors when choosing:
Voltage: 240V / 415V (1-phase or 3-phase)
kVA rating
RPM (3000RPM or 1500RPM)
Petrol or Diesel
Brushless or brushes
Ability to start loads such as motors
Extras: Soundproofing, starting, power outlets,
mounting holes, 12VDC / welding output

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