Assembly Language for Intel-Based

Computers, 4th Edition

Kip R. Irvine

Chapter 3: Assembly Language

Fundamentals
Slides prepared by Kip R. Irvine
Revision date: 09/15/2002

Chapter corrections (Web) Assembly language sources (Web)

(c) Pearson Education, 2002. All rights reserved. You may modify and copy this slide show for your personal use, or for
use in the classroom, as long as this copyright statement, the author's name, and the title are not changed.

Chapter Overview

Basic Elements of Assembly Language

Example: Adding and Subtracting Integers
Assembling, Linking, and Running Programs
Defining Data
Symbolic Constants
Real-Address Mode Programming

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Basic Elements of Assembly Language

Integer constants
Integer expressions
Character and string constants
Reserved words and identifiers
Directives and instructions
Labels
Mnemonics and Operands
Comments
Examples

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Integer Constants
Optional leading + or sign
binary, decimal, hexadecimal, or octal digits
Common radix characters:

h hexadecimal
d decimal
b binary
r encoded real

Examples: 30d, 6Ah, 42, 1101b

Hexadecimal beginning with letter: 0A5h

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Integer Expressions
Operators and precedence levels:

Examples:

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Character and String Constants

Enclose character in single or double quotes
'A', "x"
ASCII character = 1 byte

Enclose strings in single or double quotes

"ABC"
'xyz'
Each character occupies a single byte

Embedded quotes:
'Say "Goodnight," Gracie'

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Reserved Words and Identifiers

Reserved words (Appendix D) cannot be used as
identifiers
Instruction mnemonics, directives, type attributes,
operators, predefined symbols

Identifiers
1-247 characters, including digits
case insensitive (by default)
first character must be a letter, _, @, or $

Directives
command understood by the assembler
not part of Intel instruction set
case insensitive

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Directives
Commands that are recognized and acted
upon by the assembler
Not part of the Intel instruction set
Used to declare code, data areas, select
memory model, declare procedures, etc.

Different assemblers have different directives

NASM != MASM, for example

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Instructions

Assembled into machine code by assembler

Executed at runtime by the CPU
Member of the Intel IA-32 instruction set
Parts

Label
Mnemonic
Operand
Comment

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Labels
Act as place markers
marks the address (offset) of code and data

Follow identifer rules

Data label
must be unique
example: myArray

(not followed by colon)

Code label
target of jump and loop instructions
example: L1:
(followed by colon)

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Mnemonics and Operands

Instruction Mnemonics
"reminder"
examples: MOV, ADD, SUB, MUL, INC, DEC

Operands

constant (immediate value)

constant expression
register
memory (data label)

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Comments
Comments are good!

explain the program's purpose

when it was written, and by whom
revision information
tricky coding techniques
application-specific explanations

Single-line comments
begin with semicolon (;)

Multi-line comments
begin with COMMENT directive and a programmerchosen character
end with the same programmer-chosen character

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Instruction Format Examples

No operands
stc

; set Carry flag

One operand
inc eax
inc myByte

; register
; memory

Two operands
add ebx,ecx
sub myByte,25
add eax,36 * 25

; register, register
; memory, constant
; register, constant-expression

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Example: Adding and Subtracting Integers

TITLE Add and Subtract

(AddSub.asm)

; This program adds and subtracts 32-bit integers.

INCLUDE Irvine32.inc
.code
main PROC
mov eax,10000h
add eax,40000h
sub eax,20000h
call DumpRegs
exit
main ENDP
END main

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;
;
;
;

EAX = 10000h
EAX = 50000h
EAX = 30000h
display registers

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Example Output
Program output, showing registers and flags:
EAX=00030000

EBX=7FFDF000

ECX=00000101

EDX=FFFFFFFF

ESI=00000000

EDI=00000000

EBP=0012FFF0

ESP=0012FFC4

EIP=00401024

EFL=00000206

CF=0

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SF=0

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ZF=0

Examples

OF=0

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Suggested Coding Standards

(1 of 2)

Some approaches to capitalization

capitalize nothing
capitalize everything
capitalize all reserved words, including instruction
mnemonics and register names
capitalize only directives and operators

Other suggestions
descriptive identifier names
spaces surrounding arithmetic operators
blank lines between procedures

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Suggested Coding Standards

(2 of 2)

Indentation and spacing

code and data labels no indentation

executable instructions indent 4-5 spaces
comments: begin at column 40-45, aligned vertically
1-3 spaces between instruction and its operands
ex: mov ax,bx

1-2 blank lines between procedures

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Alternative Version of AddSub

TITLE Add and Subtract

(AddSubAlt.asm)

; This program adds and subtracts 32-bit integers.

.386
.MODEL flat,stdcall
.STACK 4096
ExitProcess PROTO, dwExitCode:DWORD
DumpRegs PROTO
.code
main PROC
mov eax,10000h
add eax,40000h
sub eax,20000h
call DumpRegs
INVOKE ExitProcess,0
main ENDP
END main

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; EAX = 10000h
; EAX = 50000h
; EAX = 30000h

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Program Template
TITLE Program Template
;
;
;
;
;

(Template.asm)

Program Description:
Author:
Creation Date:
Revisions:
Date:
Modified by:

Instructors: please
customize as needed

INCLUDE Irvine32.inc
.data
; (insert variables here)
.code
main PROC
; (insert executable instructions here)
exit
main ENDP
; (insert additional procedures here)
END main

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Assembling, Linking, and Running Programs

Assemble-Link-Execute Cycle
make32.bat
Listing File
Map File

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Assemble-Link Execute Cycle

The following diagram describes the steps from creating a
source program through executing the compiled program.
If the source code is modified, Steps 2 through 4 must be
repeated.

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make32.bat
Called a batch file
Run it to assemble and link programs
Contains a command that executes ML.EXE (the
Microsoft Assembler)
Contains a command that executes LINK32.EXE (the
32-bit Microsoft Linker)
Command-Line syntax:
make32 progName

(progName does not include the .asm extension)

Use make16.bat to assemble and link Real-mode programs

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Listing File
Use it to see how your program is compiled
Contains

source code
addresses
object code (machine language)
segment names
symbols (variables, procedures, and constants)

Example: addSub.lst

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Map File
Information about each program segment:

starting address
ending address
size
segment type

Example: addSub.map

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Defining Data

Intrinsic Data Types

Data Definition Statement
Defining BYTE and SBYTE Data
Defining WORD and SWORD Data
Defining DWORD and SDWORD Data
Defining QWORD Data
Defining TBYTE Data
Defining Real Number Data
Little Endian Order
Adding Variables to the AddSub Program
Declaring Uninitialized Data

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Intrinsic Data Types (1 of 2)

BYTE, SBYTE
8-bit unsigned integer; 8-bit signed integer

WORD, SWORD
16-bit unsigned & signed integer

DWORD, SDWORD
32-bit unsigned & signed integer

QWORD
64-bit integer

TBYTE
80-bit integer

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Intrinsic Data Types (2 of 2)

REAL4
4-byte IEEE short real

REAL8
8-byte IEEE long real

REAL10
10-byte IEEE extended real

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Data Definition Statement

A data definition statement sets aside storage in
memory for a variable.
May optionally assign a name (label) to the data
Syntax:
[name] directive initializer [,initializer] . . .

All initializers become binary data in memory

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Defining BYTE and SBYTE Data

Each of the following defines a single byte of storage:
value1 BYTE 'A'

; character constant

value2 BYTE 0

; smallest unsigned byte

value3 BYTE 255

; largest unsigned byte

value4 SBYTE -128

; smallest signed byte

value5 SBYTE +127

; largest signed byte

value6 BYTE ?

; uninitialized byte

A variable name is a data label that implies an offset (an address).

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Defining Bytes
Examples that use multiple initializers:
list1 BYTE 10,20,30,40
list2 BYTE 10,20,30,40
BYTE 50,60,70,80
BYTE 81,82,83,84
list3 BYTE ?,32,41h,00100010b
list4 BYTE 0Ah,20h,A,22h

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Defining Strings

(1 of 3)

A string is implemented as an array of characters

For convenience, it is usually enclosed in quotation marks
It usually has a null byte at the end

Examples:
str1 BYTE
str2 BYTE
str3 BYTE
greeting

"Enter your name",0

'Error: halting program',0
'A','E','I','O','U'
BYTE "Welcome to the Encryption Demo program "
BYTE "created by Kip Irvine.",0

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Defining Strings

(2 of 3)

To continue a single string across multiple lines, end

each line with a comma:
menu BYTE "Checking Account",0dh,0ah,0dh,0ah,
"1. Create a new account",0dh,0ah,
"2. Open an existing account",0dh,0ah,
"3. Credit the account",0dh,0ah,
"4. Debit the account",0dh,0ah,
"5. Exit",0ah,0ah,
"Choice> ",0

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Defining Strings

(3 of 3)

End-of-line character sequence:

0Dh = carriage return
0Ah = line feed
str1 BYTE "Enter your name:
",0Dh,0Ah
BYTE "Enter your address: ",0
newLine BYTE 0Dh,0Ah,0

Idea: Define all strings used by your program in the same

area of the data segment.

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Using the DUP Operator

Use DUP to allocate (create space for) an array or
string.
Counter and argument must be constants or constant
expressions
var1 BYTE 20 DUP(0)

; 20 bytes, all equal to zero

var2 BYTE 20 DUP(?)

; 20 bytes, uninitialized

var3 BYTE 4 DUP("STACK")

; 20 bytes: "STACKSTACKSTACKSTACK"

var4 BYTE 10,3 DUP(0),20

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Defining WORD and SWORD Data

Define storage for 16-bit integers
or double characters
single value or multiple values
word1 WORD
65535
word2 SWORD 32768
word3 WORD
?
word4 WORD "AB"
myList WORD 1,2,3,4,5
array WORD 5 DUP(?)

;
;
;
;
;
;

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largest unsigned value

smallest signed value
uninitialized, unsigned
double characters
array of words
uninitialized array

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Defining DWORD and SDWORD Data

Storage definitions for signed and unsigned 32-bit
integers:
val1
val2
val3
val4

DWORD 12345678h
SDWORD 2147483648
DWORD 20 DUP(?)
SDWORD 3,2,1,0,1

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;
;
;
;

unsigned
signed
unsigned array
signed array

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Defining QWORD, TBYTE, Real Data

Storage definitions for quadwords, tenbyte values,
and real numbers:
quad1 QWORD 1234567812345678h
val1 TBYTE 1000000000123456789Ah
rVal1 REAL4 -2.1
rVal2 REAL8 3.2E-260
rVal3 REAL10 4.6E+4096
ShortArray REAL4 20 DUP(0.0)

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Little Endian Order

All data types larger than a byte store their individual
bytes in reverse order. The least significant byte occurs
at the first (lowest) memory address.
Example:
val1 DWORD 12345678h

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Adding Variables to AddSub

TITLE Add and Subtract, Version 2
(AddSub2.asm)
; This program adds and subtracts 32-bit unsigned
; integers and stores the sum in a variable.
INCLUDE Irvine32.inc
.data
val1 DWORD 10000h
val2 DWORD 40000h
val3 DWORD 20000h
finalVal DWORD ?
.code
main PROC
mov eax,val1
; start with 10000h
add eax,val2
; add 40000h
sub eax,val3
; subtract 20000h
mov finalVal,eax
; store the result (30000h)
call DumpRegs
; display the registers
exit
main ENDP
END main

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Declaring Unitialized Data

Use the .data? directive to declare an unintialized data segment:

.data?
bigArray DWORD 5000 DUP(?)
Versus
.data
smallArray DWORD 10 DUP(0)
bigArray DWORD 5000 DUP(?)

Advantage: the program's EXE file size is reduced.

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Symbolic Constants

Equal-Sign Directive
Calculating the Sizes of Arrays and Strings
EQU Directive
TEXTEQU Directive

Unlike a variable definition, a symbolic constant does no

use any storage.
Symbols are used only during the assembly time.

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Equal-Sign Directive
name = expression
expression is a 32-bit integer (expression or constant)
may be redefined
name is called a symbolic constant

good programming style to use symbols

Esc_key = 27
mov al, Esc_key
Count = 5
Array Count Dup(0)
Count = 10
Mov al, Count

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Calculating the Size of a Byte Array

current location counter: $
subtract address of list
difference is the number of bytes

list BYTE 10,20,30,40

ListSize = ($ - list)

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Calculating the Size of a Word Array

current location counter: $
subtract address of list
difference is the number of bytes
divide by 2 (the size of a word)

list WORD 1000h,2000h,3000h,4000h

ListSize = ($ - list) / 2

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Calculating the Size of a Doubleword Array

current location counter: $
subtract address of list
difference is the number of bytes
divide by 4 (the size of a doubleword)

list DWORD 1,2,3,4

ListSize = ($ - list) / 4

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EQU Directive
Define a symbol as either an integer or text expression.
Cannot be redefined

PI EQU <3.1416>
pressKey EQU <"Press any key to continue...",0>
.data
prompt BYTE pressKey

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TEXTEQU Directive
Define a symbol as either an integer or text expression.
Called a text macro
Can be redefined
continueMsg TEXTEQU <"Do you wish to continue (Y/N)?">
rowSize = 5
.data
prompt1 BYTE continueMsg
count TEXTEQU %(rowSize * 2)

; evaluates the expression

move TEXTEQU <mov>

setupAL TEXTEQU <move al,count>
.code
setupAL

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; generates: "mov al,10"

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Real-Address Mode Programming

(1 of 2)

Generate 16-bit MS-DOS Programs

Advantages
enables calling of MS-DOS and BIOS functions
no memory access restrictions

Disadvantages
must be aware of both segments and offsets
cannot call Win32 functions (Windows 95 onward)
limited to 640K program memory

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Real-Address Mode Programming

(2 of 2)

Requirements
INCLUDE Irvine16.inc
Initialize DS to the data segment:
mov ax,@data
mov ds,ax

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Add and Subtract, 16-Bit Version

TITLE Add and Subtract, Version 2
(AddSub2.asm)
INCLUDE Irvine16.inc
.data
val1 DWORD 10000h
val2 DWORD 40000h
val3 DWORD 20000h
finalVal DWORD ?
.code
main PROC
mov ax,@data
; initialize DS
mov ds,ax
mov eax,val1
; get first value
add eax,val2
; add second value
sub eax,val3
; subtract third value
mov finalVal,eax
; store the result
call DumpRegs
; display registers
exit
main ENDP
END main

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46 69 6E 69 73

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