History & Development of
Astronomy
Retrograde motion
The Greek Models
Geocentrism, Epicycles, & the Church
Copernicus
Tycho Brahe
Kepler
Galileo
What did ancient civilizations
achieve in astronomy?
Daily timekeeping
Tracking the seasons and calendar
Monitoring lunar cycles
Monitoring planets and stars
Predicting eclipses
And more
Days of the week were named for Sun, Moon, and
the 5 visible planets.
Ancient people of central Africa (6500 B.C.)
could predict seasons from the orientation of the
crescent moon.
Egyptian obelisk:
Shadows tell time of
day.
England: Stonehenge (completed around 1550 B.C.)
Mexico: model of the Templo Mayor
New Mexico: Anasazi kiva aligned northsouth
SW United States: Sun Dagger marks summer solstice
Scotland: 4,000-year-old stone circle; Moon rises as
shown here every 18.6 years.
Peru: lines and patterns, some aligned with stars
Macchu Pichu, Peru: structures aligned with solstices
South Pacific: Polynesians were very skilled in the art of celestial navigation.
France:Cavepaintingsfrom18,000B.C.maysuggest
knowledgeoflunarphases(29dots).
"On the Jisi
day, the 7th
day of the
month, a big
new star
appeared in
the company
of the Ho
star."
"On the Xinwei day the new star dwindled."
Bone or tortoiseshell inscription from the 14th century B.C.
China: earliest known records of supernova explosions (1400 B.C.)
Two Different Early Models
GEOCENTRIC
Earth is the center of everything
Earth doesnt spin or move
The Geocentric Model as art
Two Different Early Models
HELIOCENTRIC
The Sun is the center
of the solar system
Earth spins (rotates)
to create day/night
Earth orbits (revolves)
to create the year
Geocentric Models
made sense
GEOCENTRIC: Earth doesnt move
If we did, wed feel it!
If we did, wed lose the moon!
If we did, the stars around us would shift!
THEREFORE:
Sky (& Stars!) rotated around us
Sun & Moon & Planets actually move among key
constellations of the Zodiac by design/choice
Two Different Early Models
HELIOCENTRIC: Earth moves about the Sun
So do all of the planets
The Moon goes around us, too
Earth spins to create night and day
THEREFORE:
Sky (& Stars!) just SEEM to rotate around us
Sun & Moon & Planets moved among key constellations
of the Zodiac because of OUR motion
KEY IDEA: Retrograde motion of
the planets
We make the observation that planets
and only the planets dance in front of the
stars. How is this observation explained in
each model?
The Motion of the Planets
in the sky over time
The Motion of Mars
In 2009-2010
Retrograde Motion Explanations
Ancient (and geocentric)
The planets move on their own around us
God(s) control their motions
Heavens realm doesnt concern us!
It just is
Retrograde Motion Explanations
Modern (and heliocentric)
Earth and other planets orbit the sun at
different rates
Earth laps slower-moving outer planets
and they appear to loop
Retrograde Motion Explanations
Modern (and heliocentric)
Earth and other planets orbit the sun at
different rates
Inner planets speed between us & sun one
way, then seem to reverse along far side
Venus Different Views
Venus
September
2013
evening
sky
Venus Different Views
Venus
September
2013
evening
sky
Venus Different Views
Venus January 2013
morning sky
Why does modern science trace its
roots to the Greeks?
How did the Greeks explain planetary motion?
How did Islamic scientists preserve and extend
Greek science?
Artists reconstruction of the Library of Alexandria
Our mathematical and scientific heritage originated with
the civilizations of the Middle East.
Why does modern science trace its roots to
the Greeks?
Greeks were the first
people known to make
models of nature.
Greek geocentric
model (c. 400 B.C.)
They tried to explain
patterns in nature
without resorting to
myth or the
supernatural.
Eratosthenes measures the Earth
(c. 240 B.C.)
Measurements:
Syene to Alexandria
distance 5,000 stadia
angle = 7
Eratosthenes measures the Earth
(c. 240 B.C.)
Calculate circumference of Earth:
7/360 (circum. Earth) = 5,000 stadia
circum. Earth = 5,000 360/7 stadia 250,000 stadia
Compare to modern value ( 40,100 km):
Greek stadium 1/6 km 250,000 stadia 42,000 km
How did some Greeks explain planetary motion?
UnderpinningsoftheGreekgeocentricmodel:
Earthatthecenteroftheuniverse
Heavensmustbeperfectobjects
moveonperfectspheresorin
perfectcircles.
Plato
Aristotle
But this made it difficult to explain the
apparent retrograde motion of planets
Review: Over a period of 10 weeks, Mars appears to stop, back
up, then go forward again.
How did other Greeks explain planetary motion?
Suncenteredmodelshadbeenconsidered
Philolaus:Sunthecentralfireat
thecenteroftheuniverse
Aristarchus:Earthmustbesmaller
Archimedes:StarsmustbeMUCH
fartheraway!
Aristarchus
Archimedes
The most sophisticated
geocentric model was that of
Ptolemy (A.D. 100170)
the Ptolemaic model:
Sufficiently accurate to
remain in use for 1,500 years
Ptolemy
Arabic translation of
Ptolemys work named
Almagest (the greatest
compilation)
So how does the
Ptolemaic model
explain retrograde
motion?
Planets really do go
backward in this
model.
Ptolemaic Retrograde Motion
Ptolemaic Retrograde Motion
What happened after Ptolemys model?
Theologically
Earth at the center of everything fits western
religious growth in Christianity
Scientifically
Earth rotating and revolving mysteriously through
unseen forces is hard to prove
Science was unnecessary
The Roman Era
The Roman Era
Science should be
practical
The Fall of Rome
The Looting of the
Library of Alexandria
The Dark Ages..
The Dark Ages..
In Europe
The Dark Ages..
In Europe
Not in the Middle
East, China, The
Yucatan,
Polynesia.
The Dark Ages..
In Europe
The Crusades!
The Crusades!
Greek Records,
Preserved,
Translated, and
advanced by Arabic
Empires are brought
back to Europe
Including works by
Ptolemy,
Eratosthenes,
Aristarchus, others
The Crusades!
Greek Records,
Preserved,
Translated, and
advanced by Arabic
Empires are brought
back to Europe
and used for
navigation charts
The Crusades!
Greek Records,
Preserved,
Translated, and
advanced by Arabic
Empires are brought
back to Europe
and Ptolemys
model doesnt quite
work especially for
Mercury
The Crusades!
Greek Records,
Preserved,
Translated, and
advanced by Arabic
Empires are brought
back to Europe
and they are
copied and kept
The Crusades!
Greek Records,
Preserved,
Translated, and
advanced by Arabic
Empires are brought
back to Europe
and they are
copied and kept
by the Church
How did Copernicus, Tycho, and Kepler
challenge the Earth-centered idea?
Copernicus (14731543):
Proposed Sun-centered model
(heliocentric) published 1543.
Used model to determine layout
of solar system
How did Copernicus, Tycho, and Kepler
challenge the Earth-centered idea?
Copernicus (14731543):
Sun-centered model
Determined layout of solar system
(planetary distances in AU).
But . . .
Assumed CIRCULAR orbits
Model was no more accurate than
Ptolemaic model in predicting
planetary positions.
Brahe compiled most accurate
naked eye measurements of
planetary positions ever made
at the time.
Precise to 1/60th of a degree!
Tycho Brahe
(15461601)
Still could not detect stellar
parallax
Thought Earth must be at
center of solar system
Recognized that other planets
go around Sun.
Parallax
Parallax results from shift in
viewing position
If CLOSE to Earth, a star
would be seen in different
locations (at different angles)
Parallax results from shift in
viewing position
If FAR from Earth, a star
would NOT be seen in
different locations
(at different angles)
Tycho Brahe
(15461601)
Hired Johannes Kepler,
who used Tychos
observations to discover
actual shape of planetary
orbits and motions.
Johannes Kepler
(15711630)
Kepler first tried to match Tychos
observations with circular orbits.
An 8 arc-minute discrepancy
(about 13% of one degree)
led him eventually to ellipses.
Developed 3 laws of orbits
Johannes Kepler
(15711630)
An 8 arc-minute discrepancy
(about 13% of one degree)
led him eventually to ellipses.
100 meters away!
8 arc-min
Johannes Kepler
(15711630)
If I had believed that we
could ignore these eight
minutes [of arc], I would
have patched up my
hypothesis accordingly.
But, since it was not
permissible to ignore,
those eight minutes
pointed the road to a
complete reformation in
astronomy.
What is an ellipse?
An ellipse looks like an elongated circle.
What are Keplers three laws
of planetary motion?
Shape
Speed
Time
Keplers First Law:
SHAPE
The orbit of each planet around the Sun is an ellipse
with the Sun at one focus.
Keplers Second Law:
SPEED
As a planet moves around its orbit, it sweeps out
equal areas in equal times.
Keplers Second Law:
SPEED
This means that a planet travels faster when it is nearer to Sun
and slower when it is farther from the Sun.
Keplers Second Law Simulation
at Mastering Astronomy
Keplers Third Law:
Time
More distant planets orbit the Sun at slower
average speeds, obeying the relationship
p2 ~ a3
p = orbital period (years or days)
a = average distance from Sun
Keplers Third Law Simulation at
Mastering Astronomy
Graphical version of Keplers Third Law
Keplers Data
Planet
Orbit
a
(miles)
Period
P
a3
P2
a3
P2
(days)
Mercury
3.596 x 107
86.96
46.49 x 1021
7734
6.009 x 1018
Venus
6.716 x 107
224.7
303.3 x 1021
50490
6.008 x 1018
Earth
9.290 x 107
365.3
801.7 x 1021
133500
6.009 x 1018
Mars
14.16 x 107
687.1
2836 x 1021
472100
6.008 x 1018
Jupiter
48.33 x 107
4323
112900 x
1021
18780000
6.012 x 1018
Saturn
88.61 x 107
10760
695800 x
1021
115800000
6.011 x 1018
Graphical version of Keplers Third Law
The Aristotelian Beliefs of Galileos Time:
Heliocentrism was impossible!
1. Earth was the center of all celestial
motions, & everything orbited us.
2. Noncircular orbits are not perfect
as heavens should be.
3. Earth could not be moving because
objects in air would be left behind.
4. If Earth were really orbiting Sun,
wed detect stellar parallax.
Galileos
Telescopic
Observations
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The Moon had mountains & craters
The Sun had spots
Jupiter had moons
Venus had phases & shape changes
Saturn had ears
The Milky Way had countless stars
1.The Moon had mountains & craters
2.
The Sun
had spots
3. Jupiter had four
moons in orbit
around the planet!
Jupiters Moons
4. Venus had phases & shape changes
5. Saturn had ears
6. The Milky Way had countless
stars
The Importance of
Galileos
Telescopic
Observations
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The Moon had mountains & craters
The Sun had spots
Jupiter had moons
Venus had phases & shape changes
Saturn had ears
The Milky Way had countless stars
The Heavens were
NOT perfect
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The Moon had mountains & craters
The Sun had spots
Jupiter had moons
Venus had phases & shape changes
Saturn had ears
The Milky Way had countless stars
The Earth was
NOT the only
center of motion
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The Moon had mountains & craters
The Sun had spots
Jupiter had moons
Venus had phases & shape changes
Saturn had ears
The Milky Way had countless stars
Earth could keep
its moon if it
orbited the Sun
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The Moon had mountains & craters
The Sun had spots
Jupiter had moons
Venus had phases & shape changes
Saturn had ears
The Milky Way had countless stars
Venus HAD to orbit
the Sun, not Earth
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The Moon had mountains & craters
The Sun had spots
Jupiter had moons
Venus had phases & shape changes
Saturn had ears
The Milky Way had countless stars
Galileos observations of phases & shape
changes of Venus proved that it orbits the
Sun and not Earth.
Geocentric system:
Venus always seen as
crescent
About the same size
Heliocentric system:
Venus changes phase
Distance varies so SIZE
varies too
Stars are so far away,
we cant measure
parallax even if the
Earth moved!
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The Moon had mountains & craters
The Sun had spots
Jupiter had moons
Venus had phases & shape changes
Saturn had ears
The Milky Way had countless stars
Galileos observations destroyed
Aristotelian beliefs held to be true:
1. Noncircular orbits are not perfect
as heavens should be.
2. Earth was the center of all celestial
motions, & everything orbited us.
3. Earth could not be moving because
objects in air would be left behind.
4. If Earth were really orbiting Sun,
wed detect stellar parallax.
Overcoming the first objection
(Earth at center of solar system):
Moons of Jupiter clearly orbited Jupiter, not Earth
Venus Phases and size changes showed it orbited
the Sun, not Earth.
NOTE!
He didnt see proof of EARTH orbiting the sun
Overcoming the second objection
(nature of motion):
Galileos experiments showed that objects in
air would stay with a moving Earth.
Aristotle thought that all objects naturally come to rest.
Galileo showed that objects will stay in motion unless
a force acts to slow them down (Newtons first law of
motion).
The planets COULD move about the Sun and not stop!
Overcoming the third objection
(heavenly perfection):
Using his telescope, Galileo saw:
Sunspots on Sun (imperfections)
Mountains and valleys on the
Moon (proving it is not a perfect
sphere)
Ears of Saturn
Overcoming the fourth objection
(parallax):
Tycho thought lack of parallax seemed to rule out an
orbiting Earth.
Galileo showed stars must be much farther than
Tycho thoughtin part by using his telescope to see
that the Milky Way is countless individual stars.
If stars were much farther away, then lack of
detectable parallax was no longer so troubling.
In 1633 the Catholic Church
ordered Galileo to recant his
claim that Earth orbits the Sun.
His book on the subject was
removed from the Churchs
index of banned books in 1824.
Galileo was formally vindicated
by the Church in 1992.
Galileo Galilei
Summary of Key Ideas
The Scientific Method
Make Observations
Research/Consider Prior
Theories
Analyze Results
The Scientific Method
Make Observations
Research/Consider Prior Theories
Analyze Results
If pre-existing theories
explain observation,
propose new observations
& experiments to extend
theories.
The Scientific Method
Make Observations
Research/Consider Prior Theories
Analyze Results
If pre-existing theories explain
observation, propose new
observations//experiments to
extend theories.
If NO pre-existing
theories explain
observation, modify
or develop new
theory
The Scientific Method
Make Observations
Research/Consider Prior Theories
Analyze Results
If pre-existing theories explain
observation, propose new
observations//experiments to
extend theories.
If NO pre-existing theories
explain observation, modify
or develop new theory
Make predictions from new/modified theory
Do the Experiment!
Analyze Results
Submit for Peer Review & Publish
WHAT DID YOU THINK?
What makes a theory scientific?
A theory is an idea or set of ideas
proposed to explain something about the
natural world. A theory is scientific if it
makes predictions that can be objectively
tested and potentially disproved.
WHAT DID YOU THINK?
What is the shape of Earths orbit around
the Sun?
All planets have elliptical orbits around the
Sun.
WHAT DID YOU THINK?
Do the planets orbit the Sun at constant
speeds?
No. The closer a planet is to the Sun in its
elliptical orbit, the faster it is moving. The
planet moves fastest at perihelion and
slowest at aphelion.
WHAT DID YOU THINK?
Do all of the planets orbit the Sun at the
same speed?
No. A planets speed depends on its
average distance from the Sun. The
closest planet moves fastest, the most
distant planet moves slowest.
WHAT DID YOU THINK?
How much force does it take to keep an
object moving in a straight line at a
constant speed?
Unless an object is subject to an outside
force, like friction, it takes no force at all to
keep it moving in a straight line at a
constant speed.
WHAT DID YOU THINK?
How does an objects mass differ when
measured on Earth and on the Moon?
Assuming the object doesnt shed or
collect pieces, its mass remains constant
whether on Earth or on the Moon. Its
weight, however, is less on the Moon.
WHAT DID YOU THINK?
Do astronauts orbiting the Earth feel the
force of gravity from our planet?
Yes. They are continually pulled earthward
by gravity, but they continually miss it
because of their motion around it.
Because they are continually in free-fall,
they feel weightless.
