Calculation of density of states

d x 2m
2 E V ( x) x 0
2
dx

V = 0, 0 < x < a
V for x < 0 and x > a
If we assume E is finite, so
(x) = 0 outside of well

n
k
, n 1,2,3....
L
2 k 2 n 2 2 2 n 2 h 2
E

2
2m
2mL
8mL2

2
nx
sin
, n = 1,2,3,...
L L

For three dimensional box

2 2 2 2m
2 2 2 E V ( x) x 0
2
x
y
z

n y
n x
n z
kx
, ky
, kz
nx , n y , nz 1,2,3....
L
L
L
2
2
2
2 2
(nx2 n y2 nz2 )h 2
2 k 2 (nx n y nz )
E

2
2m
2mL
8mL2

n yy
nxx
nzz
8

sin

sin
sin
L
Lx L y Lz
y
Lz
Lx

hat is the number of energy states in unit energy range???

Each Solution can be uniquely

associated with a k-space vector

n y
n x
n z
k
ax
ay
az
Lx
Ly
Lz
ax,ay,az unit vectors along kspace coordinate axes.
Each point corresponds one
state of the system

Taking note of lattice arrangements of

states as points in k-space, the unit call
of volume
contain one allowed state
States/unit volume of k-space=
Considering there is not physical
differences between wavefunction
solution which differ only in sign, the
total number should be divided by 8.
On other hand, for electrons, two
allowed spin states must be
associated with each independent
solution.
We
therefore obtain

States/unit volume of k-space=

Next step is to determine the number of states with

k value between arbitrarily chosen k and k+dk

ergy states with k between k and k+dk =

2mE
2mE
k 2 ,k

2
2

2m 1 1
dk
. .
dE
2
2 E

rgy states with E between E and E+dE =

Density of energy states per unit volume

m 2mE
4
3/ 2
g ( E )dE
dE

(
2
m
)
E dE
2 3
3

h

Problems
1. An electron is bound in a one dimensional potential well with a width
of 100. Determine the electron energy levels for n=1,2,3.
2. Calculate lowest energy level for a neutron in a nucleus, by
considering it as if it were in an infinite well of width equal to 10 -14m.
Compare this with the lowest energy level for an electron in the same
potential well.
3. Consider a particle with mass 10g in an infinite potential well 1.0 cm
wide. If energy of the particle is 1mJ, calculate the value of n for that
state. Would quantum effect be observable for this particle?
4. Calculate the density of states per unit volume with energies between
0 and 1eV.

Fermi-Dirac distribution and the

Fermi-level
Density of states tells us how many states exist at a given
energy E. The Fermi function f(E) specifies how many of
the existing states at the energy E will be filled with
electrons. The function f(E) specifies, under equilibrium
conditions, the probability that an available state at an
energy E will be occupied by an electron. It is a probability
distribution function.

f (E)

1
1 e

E EF
kT

EF = Fermi energy or Fermi level

k = Boltzmann constant = 1.38
1023 J/K = 8.6 105 eV/K
T = absolute temperature in K
9

Fermi-Dirac distribution: Consider T 0 K

For E > EF :
For E < EF :

f ( E EF )

1
0
1 exp ()

f ( E EF )

1
1
1 exp ()

E
EF

f(E)

Fermi-Dirac distribution: Consider T > 0 K

If E = EF then f(EF) =

mi energy is the energy state whose occupancy is always 0.5

Boltzmann approximation
If

E EF kT

E EF
exp
1
then
kT

( E EF )
Thus the following approximation is fvalid:
( E ) exp

kT

is the energy at which the Boltzmann approximation may be considered

Calculate the energy in terms of k and T, at which the difference between
the Boltzmann approximation and Fermi-Dirac function is five percent of
Fermi function.

Exercise:

1. Determine the probability that an energy level is occupied by an

electron if the state is above the Fermi level by (a) kT (b) 5kT

2. Determine the probability that the energy level is empty .

[Link] electrons exist in a one dimensional infinite potential well

of width a=10. Assuming free electron mass, what is the Fermi level at 0K.

Electrons inside a solid

The wave equation can be solved
when the potential is simple... such as
a periodic square well.

Kronig-Penney model

A simple one-dimensional model of a

crystalline solid
V = 0, 0 < x < a, the ionic region
V = Vo, a < x < (a + b) = L, between ions

V(x+nL) = V(x), n = 0, +1, +2, +3,

,representing the symmetry of the
assemblage of ions and requiring that
(x+L) = (x) exp(ikL), Blochs Theorem

Solution of equation
Ref- pg.41-43, Neamen

Schrodingers equation

Limiting case of V inf. and b 0,

while bV is finite

2mE
h2

mVba sin a
cos a cos ka

2
h a

The left-hand side is limited to values

between +1 and 1 for all values of k.
Plotting this it is observed there exist
restricted forbidden zones for
solutions.

Plot of energy E versus wave number k diagram

Solutions can be displaced by ka = 2n

E versus k diagram in reduced zone representation

Band theory of solid

a nearly-free electron model and effective mass

concept

Infinite well approximation by replacing the free electron mass

with an effective mass (noting E = p2/2m = h2k2/2m) of

h2
2
E
k
,
2
8m

E
h2

k
2
k 4m

2E
h2 1

,
2
2
k
4 m

h2

m 2
4

2E

2
k

E Ec C1k ,
2

2E
h2 1

,
2
2
*
k
4 m

2E
2C1
2
k
h2

m
4 2

E Ev C2 k ,
2

2C1

2E
h2 1

,
2
2
*
k
4 m

2E
2C2
2
k
h2

m 2
4

2C2

F eE m*a
a

eE
m*

Electron effective mass near bottom of conduction band is constant

K-space diagram
GaAs

Direct band gap

Silicon

Indirect band gap

Which one is having higher effective mass?

Calculate the effective mass of electron in conduction

band for two different semiconductors A and B?

Density of state function for conduction and valence band

Valence band

conduction band

hk
8 2 mn*

h2k 2
E Ev 2 *
8 m p

h2k 2
E Ec 2 *
8 mn

h2k 2
Ev E 2 *
8 m p

E Ec

4 (2mn* ) 3 / 2
g (E)
E
h3
4 (2mn* ) 3 / 2
gc (E )
E Ec
3
h

Free electron

g (E)

4 (2m*p ) 3 / 2

gv (E )

h
4 (2m*p ) 3 / 2
h

E
Ev E

Work out:

1. Determine the total number of energy states in GaAs

between Ec and Ec +kT at T=3000K.
2. Determine the total number of energy states in Silicon
between Ev and Ev - kT at T=3000K.

Electron and Hole Concentrations at Equilibrium

Current in a semiconductor is largely determined by
number of electrons in conduction band and number of
hole in valence band
An important characteristics is the density of these carriers
The density of carrier is related to density of states and FermiDirac distribution function

n( E )dE g ( E ) f ( E )dE

n0 g c ( E ) f ( E )dE
gc(E)=density of state in conduction band

4 (2mn* )3 / 2
gc (E)
h3

E Ec

Fermi-Dirac function f(E)in Boltzmann approx.(E-EF>>kT)

f (E)

1 exp

1
( E EF )
exp

E EF
kT

kT

The minimum level of conduction band is Ec and the upper level

limit one can take infinite as no electrons exist beyond conduction
band

4 (2mn ) 3 / 2
n0
3
h
Ec

( E EF )
E Ec exp
dE
kT

E Ec
1
, dx
dE or dE kT .dx
kT
kT
E Ec x kT

Let x

4 (2mn ) 3 / 2
( Ec E F )
n0
kT
.
kT
exp

h3
kT

( E EF )
kT

( E Ec )
kT

.e

( Ec E F )
kT

e .e

( Ec E F )
kT

x exp( x)dx

(n) x n 1e x dx

x exp( x)dx
2

(n 1) n(n)
12

( ) x
3
2

e dx x1/ 2e x dx

( 3 / 2 ) 1 x

( 32 ) (1 12 ) 12 ( 12 )

1
2

4 (2mn ) 3 / 2
( Ec E F )
n0
kT
.
kT
exp

3
h
kT

2( )3 / 2 (2mn )3 / 2
( Ec E F )
3/ 2
n0
(
kT
)
exp

3
h
kT

(2mn kT )3 / 2
( Ec E F )
n0 2
exp

h3
kT

( Ec E F )
n0 N c exp

kT

(2mnkT )3 / 2
Effective density of state function
N c 2
3
h
Nc=2.51019cm-3 at T=300K assuming mn*=me

Equilibrium hole concentration

Lecture-7

p0 g v ( E )(1 f ( E ))dE
gv(E)=density of state in valence band

gv (E)

4 (2m*p ) 3 / 2
h3

Ev E

Fermi-Dirac function f(E)in Boltzmann approx.(E-EF>>kT)

1 f (E) 1

1
1
( EF E )

exp

kT
E EF
EF E

1 exp
1 exp

kT
kT

The maximum level of valence band is Ev, so the upper level

limit of integration is taken as Ev and lower limit is -

p0

4 (2mp ) 3 / 2

Ev

h3

( EF E )
Ev E exp
dE
kT

Ev E
1
, dy
dE or dE kT .dy
kT
kT
Ev E y kT

Let y

p0

( EF E )
kT

4 (2mp ) 3 / 2
h

( Ev E )
kT

.e

( E F Ev )
kT

e .e

( E F Ev )
kT

( E F Ev )
kT .kT exp

kT

y exp( y )dy

y exp( y )dy

 ( E F Ev )
p0 N v exp

kT

N v 2

( Ec E F )
n0 N c exp

kT

(2mnkT ) 3 / 2
N c 2
h3

(2mp kT )3 / 2
h3

1. Calculate thermal equilibrium electron and hole concentation in

silicon at T=300K for the case when the Fermi level is 0.22 below
conduction band energy Ec. The value of Eg is 1.12 eV. Effective density
of states Nc and Nv are 2.81019 cm-3 and 1.041019 cm-3 .
2. Calculate thermal equilibrium electron and hole concentation in
GaAs at T=300K for the case when the Fermi level is 0.30 above valence
band energy Ev. The value of Eg is 1.42 eV. Effective density
of states Nc and Nv are 4.71017 cm-3 and 7.01018 cm-3 .

Area representation of electron-hole concentration

Intrinsic carrier concentration

For an intrinsic semiconductor the number of electron in conduction
Band is equal to number of holes in valence band.

ni = pi
Let EFi be the intrinsic Fermi level position

( Ec EFi )
ni N c exp

kT

( EFi Ev )
pi N v exp

kT

If we take product of above two equation

Eg
( Ec Ev )
ni pi N c N v exp
N c N v exp
kT

kT

Eg=band gap energy

Intrinsic Fermi level position

ni = pi
( Ec EFi )
( EFi Ev )
N c exp

N
exp

v
kT
kT

EFi

1
Ec Ec 1 kT ln N v
2
2
Nc

m*p
1
3
EFi Ec Ec kT ln *
m
2
4
n
If effective mass of electron and hole are same.

E Fi

1
Ec Ec
2

Work out:
3. Find the intrinsic carrier concentration at (a) T=200K and T=400K.

Intrinsic carrier concentration

For an intrinsic semiconductor the number of electron in conduction
Band is equal to number of holes in valence band.

ni = pi
Let EFi be the intrinsic Fermi level position

( Ec EFi )
ni N c exp

kT

( EFi Ev )
pi N v exp

kT

If we take product of above two equation

Eg
( Ec Ev )
ni pi N c N v exp
N c N v exp
kT

kT

Eg=band gap energy

Intrinsic Fermi level position

ni = pi
( Ec EFi )
( EFi Ev )
N c exp

N
exp

v
kT
kT

EFi

1
Ec Ec 1 kT ln N v
2
2
Nc

m*p
1
3
EFi Ec Ec kT ln *
m
2
4
n
If effective mass of electron and hole are same.

E Fi

1
Ec Ec
2

Extrinsic semiconductor: n-type and p-type

Degenerate and nondegenerate semiconductors

Lightly doped

Heavily doped
EF
Ec
EF
Ed

Ev

Ec

Ed

Ev

Donor and acceptor energy level statistics

gD is the degeneracy factor=1/2

nd

Nd
1
E d EF
1 exp

2
kT

nd N d N d

Complete ionization and freeze-out

Extrinsic carrier concentration

( Ec E F )
n0 N c exp

kT

( Ec E Fi ) ( E F E Fi )
n0 N c exp

kT

( Ec E Fi )
( E F E Fi )
n0 N c exp
exp

kT
kT

( E F EFi )
n0 ni exp

kT

( E F Ev )
p0 N v exp

kT

( EFi Ev ) ( EFi E F )
p0 N v exp

kT

( EFi Ev )
( EFi E F )
p0 N v exp
exp

kT
kT

( E Fi E F )
p0 ni exp

kT

n0p0 product
( EF EFi )
n0 ni exp

kT

( E Fi E F )
p0 ni exp

kT

( EF EFi )
( EFi E F )
n0 p0 ni exp
ni exp

kT
kT

n0 p0 n

2
i

nder thermal equilibrium the product of the free electron concentration

nd the free hole concentration is equal to a constant i.e.
quare of intrinsic carrier concentration.
This equation is valid under Boltzmann approximation

Charge Neutrality
Compensated semiconductor:
Contains both donor and acceptor impurity atoms in same region.
If Nd> Na
n-type
if Na> Nd
p-type
if Na= Nd
intrinsic

n0 N a p0 N d
n0 ( N a pa ) p0 ( N d nd )

Energy band diagram of

compensated semiconductor

If we assume complete ionization, nd and pa is zero

N N d and N N a
n0 N a p0 N d
2
n
n0 p0 ni2 p0 i
n0

ni2
n0 N a
Nd
n0
n ( N d N a )n0 n 0
2
0

2
i

(Nd Na )
Nd Na
2
n0

ni
2
2

(Na Nd )
Na Nd
2
p0

ni
2
2

If Nd>>ni and Na= 0, n0=Nd

If Na>>ni and Nd= 0, p0=Na
1. Consider a copmpensated GaAs semiconductor at T=300K doped at
Nd=51015cm-3 and Na=21016cm-3. Calculate the thermal equilibrium
electron and hole concentration.
[Link] thermal equilibrium hole concentration in silicon at T=300K is
p0= 2105cm-3 . Determine thermal equilibrium electron concentration.
Is the material n-type or p-type.
3. In a sample of GaAs at T=200K, we have experimentally found that
n0=5p0 and Na=0. Calculate n0, p0 and Nd

Lecture-10
Position of Fermi energy level
( Ec E F )
n0 N c exp

kT

n0
( Ec E F )
exp

kT
Nc

Nc

n0

Ec E F kTln
If Nd>>ni and Na= 0, n0=Nd

Nc
Ec E F kTln
Nd

( E F Ev )
p0 N v exp

kT

If Na>>ni and Nd= 0, p0=Na

Nv

E F Ev kTln
Na

 ( E F EFi )
n0 ni exp

kT

( E Fi E F )
p0 ni exp

kT

n0

E F EFi kTln
ni

p0

EFi E F kTln
ni

1. Consider germanium with an acceptor concentration of Na=1015cm-3

And donor concentration Nd=0. Consider temperature of T=200, 400 and
600K. Calculate the position of Fermi level with respect to the intrinsic
Fermi level position.
Band gap of Ge = 0.66 eV, Nc= 11019 cm-3, Nv= 51018 cm-3

Variation of Fermi level with doping concentration

The distance between the Fermi level and the intrinsic Fermi level
near mid gap is a logarithmic function of doping concentration

Variation of Fermi level with temperature

 When two systems are in thermal

equilibrium with no current flow between
them, their Fermi levels must be equal.
For a continuous region of metals
and/or semiconductors in contact,
the Fermi level at thermal equilibrium is flat.

Carrier Transport
There are mainly two modes of transport
(a) Drift

Two other modes of transport are

(a)Thermoelectric current
(b) tunneling

(b) Diffusion

Random thermal of motion of carriers

Mean free path

l1 l2 l3 ..... ln
lc
n
Mean free time
Or Relaxation time

1 2 3 ..... n
c
n
Thermal velocity

1 2 3
mvth kT
2
2
vth 107 cm / sec
lc 10 5 cm(100nm)

c 10 12 sec(THz )

vth

lc
c

Properties of random motion

1. Avg velocity is zero
2. Avg flux is zero

Cause of random motion: Scattering

1. Phonon scattering or lattice scattering

2. Electron and hole scattering or carrier-carrier
scattering
3. Ionized impurity scattering

lc

lc

Consider one dimensional approx. and holes

plc A
No of carriers moving to right =
2

pl
pv
v = vth under equilibrium
Flux
F F c
2 c
2
=

Fnet F F 0

If p and v both side are equal

If concentration is not same in two regions

p1v
p2 v
F
and F
2
2

Fnet F F

p1 p2 v
2

Diffusion

If velocity is not same in both the direction

Fnet F F

p v1 v2
2

Drift

Drift, diffusion and thermoelectric current result from

Superimposition of directed motion over random motion

Drift

Fnet F F

p v1 v2
2

vmax vth a c
vth vth a c
a c
v1
vth
2
2
a c
v2 vth
2

lc

lc

p v1 v2 pa c

2
2
qpa c
p
J drift q Fnet
2
qE
a *
mp
Fnet

p
drift

qp c qE

2m*p

p
J drift
qp p E

Drift current density due to electron

Mobility of hole

q c
p
2m*p

Mobility of electron

q c
n
2mn*

n
J drift
( q )n n E qn n E

Total drift current density

p
n
J J drift
J drift
qp p E qn n E q( p p n n ) E

Mobility

Lecture-12

wo collision or scattering mechanism that dominate in semiconduct

Phonon or lattice scattering
Ionized impurity scattering

Lattice scattering depends on thermal motion of atoms,

the rate of scattering is a function of temperature

L T

n ~ 3/2 according to first order scattering theory

Mobility decreases with increase in temperature

There are coulomb interaction between electrons or holes and

Ionized impurity
The coulomb interaction produces scattering that alters velocit
characteristics of charge carriers.

T 3/ 2
I
NI
NI total number of ionized impurity

If the temperature increases, random thermal motion increases,

reducing the time carriers spent near ionized center. The less the
time spent , small is the scattering and more is mobility.

If the number of ionized center increases, the probability of carri

encountering scattering increases, implying less mobility

Variation of electron and hole mobility with temperature in silic

ation of electron and hole mobility with ionized impurity conc in si

Conductivity and resistivity

J q ( p p n n ) E E

q ( p p n n )
1
1

q ( p p n n )
For a p-type semiconductor

q ( p p n n ) q p p q p N a

onsidering equal mobility for electron and hole and complete ioniz

out:
nsider a sample of silicon at T=300K doped with an impurity
entration Nd=1015 cm-3 and Nd=1015 cm-3 . Electron and hole
lity is given as 1350 cm2/V-s and 480 cm2/V-s. Calculate the
current density if applied voltage is 35V/cm.

Diffusi
on

Fnet F F
dp
If concentration gradient is dx

p1 p2 v

dp
p1 p2 lc
dx

p1 p2 dp
v lc vth

Fnetp1 p2 lc
2 dx

p
J diff
qFnet q

p
J diff
qD p

2
lc vth

dp
dx

Dp=Diffusion co-efficient of holeD

dp
dx
dp
dx

lc vth

The diffusion current density due to electron is given by

n
diff

dn
nDn
dx

Dn=Diffusion co-efficient of electron

Work out:
15 ( x / L )
n
(
x
)

10
e
2. The electron concentration in silicon is given by
Where Ln=10-4 cm. The electron diffusion coefficient is
Dn=25 cm2/s.
Determine the electron diffusion current density at (a)
x=0,
(b) x= 10-4 cm and (c) x .
n

Einsteins Relation

q c
p
*
2m p
Dp

lc vth
Dp
2

lc vth m*p
q c
Dp

m*p vth2
q

Dn kT

p n
q

kT

The Hall Effect

Used to distinguish p-type or n-type
Measure majority carrier concentration and mobility

The force on particle

having charge q and
moving in magnetic
field is given by
F = q[E + (v x B)]

Current in the semiconductor due to applied voltage

The magnetic field applied in z direction
Electrons and holes experience a force in y
direction
In a p-type semiconductor (p0 > n0), holes will
accumulate at y=0 surface
In a n-type semiconductor (n0 > p0), electrons will
build up y=0 surface
This net charge induce of an electric field in yThe
induced field is ydirection
direction is called Hall field

In steady state, magnetic force will be exactly

balanced by induced electric force

F q E v B 0
qE y qv x Bz
The Hall field produces Hall voltage

VH E H W

olarity of Hall voltage is used to determine type of semicond

+ve VH indicate p-type
ve VH indicate n-type

VH v xWBz

I x Bz
VH
epd

Jx
Ix
vx

ep (ep)(Wd )
I x Bz
p
eVH d

or n-type semiconductor, the Hall voltage is given by

I x Bz
VH
end

I x Bz
n
eVH d

J x ep p E x
ep pVx
Ix

Wd
L

IxL
p
epVxWd

Work out:
Consider a Si sample doped with 106 boron atoms
per cm3 with the following geometry,
L = 0.1 cm, W = 10-2cm, d = 10-3cm.
The current Ix= 1 mA, Bz= 350 gauss, Vx=2.2V .
Determine Hall voltage, Hall field and mobility

P-N JUNCTION

When N-type and P-type dopants are introduced sideby-side in a semiconductor, a PN junction or a diode is
formed.

Three operation region

PN junction in
equilibrium

As free electrons and holes diffuse across the junction, a

region of fixed ions is left behind. This region is known
as the depletion region.

Energy band diagram of PN

junction

Built-in Potential
During no biasing of p n junction, a potential is developed across the
metallurgical junction due to the presence of the space charge near the
junction. This potential is called built in potential Barrier. It is denoted by
Vbi.
eVbi = Conduction band energy
difference between p and n region
= Intrinsic Fermi energy
difference between p and n
E Fi P E Fi n
region
=

eVbi = e FP e Fn
Vbi =

FP

n 0 Nc e

Fn

e Fn = E Fn - E Fi
e FP = E Fi - E Fp

E c E Fn

kT

n0 ni e

E Fn E Fi

kT

e Fn

n0 ni e

kT

e Fn
n 0
ln
kT
n i
Fn

N
kT
ln d
e
ni

 E Fi E Fp

p0 N a = n i e

Na
= e
ni
Fp

kT

Vbi

Fn

Fp

eFp
kT

kT
=
e

N
ln a
ni

kT
Nd
N a
ln

ln

ni
ni
e

Vbi

Vbi

Vbi

N a N d
Vt ln
2
ni

kT N a N d

ln

e ni2

Vt

kT
e

?? Calculate the built in potential barrier in a silicon pn junction at

T=300K for (a) Na= 51017cm-3, Nd =1016cm-3

Electric field in depletion region

W
Wn
Wp

=
=
=

Space charge width

Width of the neutral part of n-region
Width of the neutral part of p - reg

Let = Volume charge density

assume that the space charge
region abruptly ends in n region at x = +
and p-region at x = -xp
Poissons equation
dE x x
=
dx

= - e Na
= e Nd

-xp < x < 0

0 < x < xn

Permitivity

of semiconductor

1
dE x = x dx
s

Assumptions:
1. Electric field is zero in the neutral
p region for x < - xp and neutral n- region x
= + xn

Electric field in p-region

( x)
eN
eN
a dx a x C1
s
s
s

At

x = -xp

E =0

eN a
eN
x p C1 C1 a x p
s
s
eN
E a ( x x p ) For xp x 0
s

Electric field in n-region

eN
eN
( x)
d dx d x C2
s
s
s

At

x = xn E =0

eN d
eN d
0
xn C 2
C2
xn
s
s
eN
E d ( xn x )
For 0 x xn
s

Variation of electric field with distance

E field is a linear function of

distance through the junction.
Emax occurs at x = 0 (i.e at
metallurgical junction)
E field exists in the space
charge region even no voltage is
applied between p and n region

Electric potential across

junction
E=-

p = -

d
dx

d = - Edx

n = - E n dx

dx

eN d
x n -x dx

n =

eN a
x + x p dx
s

p = -

eN a x 2
p =
+
x
.x
p

s
2

At

eN d
x2
n =
x n .x
s
2

C1

As potential is a continuous function we

have

=0

x = -xp

eN a x p

0=
+ x p . -x p
s
2

eN a
2 s

C1

eN a x 2
p =
+
x
.x
p

s
2

p =

eN a
2 s

eN a x p

2
s

x+x
p

x+x
p

eN d
x2
x n .x
s
2

+ C2

eN a 2
x p = C2
2 s

eN a x p
C1 =

s 2

+ C2

eN d
x2
n =
x n .x
s
2

eN a 2
xp
2 s

eN d
x2
n =
x n .x
s
2

eN a 2
+
xp
2 s

The magnitude of potential at x = xn

( x xn ) Vbi

e
( N d xn2 N a x 2p )
2 s

Electric potential energy varies as a quadratic

function of distance through the space charge region

Space charge width

Electric field is continuous at junction (x=0)

eN a
(x xp )
s

eN d
( xn x )
s

N a x p N d xn

( x xn ) Vbi

xp

N d xn
Na

e
( N d xn2 N a x 2p )
2 s

N d xn
e
2

N d xn N a
Vbi
2 s
Na

N d2 2
Nd
xn
Na

e Nd
N a N d xn2
Vbi
2 s N a
e
Vbi
2 s

 2 sVbi
xn
e

1/ 2

N
d
a

Na

N
d

Similarly if we solve for xp and get

2 sVbi
xp
e

Nd

N
a

N
d
a

1/ 2

Total depletion width is W xn x p

2 sVbi
W
e

2 sVbi

Nd

N
a

1/ 2

N
d
a
1/ 2
N

1
d
Na Nd Na

1/ 2

2 sVbi

Na

Nd

Na

N
d

1/ 2

N
d
a

1/ 2

PSD summary: Equations

Density of states in conduction band

4 (2mn* )3 / 2
gc (E)
h3

E Ec

Density of states in valence band

gv (E)

4 (2m*p ) 3 / 2
h

Ev E

Fermi-Dirac distribution function

f (E)

1
1 e

E E F Boltzmann Approximatio
kT
( E EF )
f ( E ) exp

kT

Effective mass
2

h
m 2
4

Equilibrium hole concentration

( E F Ev )
p0 N v exp

kT

N v 2

(2mp kT ) 3 / 2
h3

Equilibrium electron concentration

( Ec E F )
n0 N c exp

kT

(2mnkT ) 3 / 2
N c 2
h3

Intrinsic carrier concentration

Eg
ni N c N v exp
kT

Intrinsic Fermi level position

E Fi

m*p

1
Ec Ec 3 kT ln *
2
4
mn

Extrinsic electron concentration

( E F E Fi )
n0 ni exp

kT

Extrinsic hole concentration

( E Fi EF )
p0 ni exp

kT

n and p product

n0 p0 n

2
i

Charge neutrality condition

n0 ( N a pa ) p0 ( N d nd )
Electron concentration from charge neutrality
2

(Nd Na )
Nd Na
2
n0

i
2
2

hole concentration from charge neutrality

2

(Na Nd )
Na Nd
2
p0

i
2
2

When Na and Nd is far greater than ni

If Nd>>ni and Na= 0,
n0=Nd
If Na>>ni and Nd= 0,
Fermi level
position in n-type
p0=N
a
Nc
Ec EF kTln
Nd

n0

E F EFi kTln
ni

If Nd>>ni and Na= 0, n0=Nd

Fermi level position in n-type

Nv

E F Ev kTln
Na
If Na>>ni and Nd= 0, p0=Na

p0

E Fi EF kTln
ni

Drift current

JJ

p
drift

n
drift

qp p E qn n E q ( p p n n ) E

Diffusion current

n
diff

dn
nDn
dx

Einstein relation

Dp

Dn kT

p n
q

p
diff

dp
qD p
dx

Hall voltage

I x Bz
VH
epd

I x Bz
VH
end

Electron and hole concentration from Hall measurement

I x Bz
p
eVH d

I x Bz
n
eVH d

Electron and hole mobility from Hall measurement

IxL
p
epVxWd

IxL
p
enVxWd

Built in potential
Vbi

N a N d
Vt ln
2
n

Electric field near junction

eN a
E
(x xp )
s

eN d
E
( xn x )
s

Electric potential near junction

eN a
p =
2 s

x + xp

eN d
x2
n =
x n .x
s
2

Electric potential difference

e
( x xn ) Vbi
( N d xn2 N a x 2p )
2 s

eN a 2
+
xp
2 s

Depletion layer width in n-type

2 sVbi
xn
e

Na

N
d

Na Nd

1/ 2

Depletion layer width in p-type

2 sVbi
xp
e

Nd

N
a

N
d
a

1/ 2

Total depletion layer width

2 sVbi
W
e

Na Nd

N
d
Na

1/ 2

1/ 2

Na

Nd

1/ 2

1. The density of state function in the conduction band

of particular semiconductor is given by gc= C1(E-Ec) for
E Ec, where C1 is constant. Derive the expression for
the thermal equilibrium concentration of electrons in
the conduction band assuming Boltzmann
approximation is valid.
2. A GaAs device is doped with a donor concentration of
31015 cm-3. For the device to operate properly, the
intrinsic carrier concentration must remain less than
5 percent of total electron concentration. What is
maximum temperature that this device may operate?
[Nc=4.71017 and Nv=4.71017 at T=300K]
3. A semiconducting material has electron and hole
mobilities n and p, respectively. When the
1/ 2
2

)
conductivityi isn considered
function of the hole
p
Where as
min
i is the intrinsic conductivity.
concentration
that the minimum value of
( n p0,p show
)
conductivity, , can be written as

Non-equilibrium excess carriers

Generation is a process whereby electrons and holes are
created,
And recombination is process whereby electrons and holes
annihilated
Any deviation from thermal equilibrium will tend to change
electron and hole concentration in a semiconductor
A sudden increase in temperature, for example, will increase the
rate at which the electrons and holes are thermally generated so
that their concentrations will change with time until new
equilibrium values are reached.
An external excitation, such as light (a flux of photons), can also
generate electrons and holes, creating a nonequilibrium
condition.
To understand the generation and recombination processes, we
will only consider direct band-to-band generation and
recombination

Equilibrium carrier generation

and recombination rare

Gn 0 G p 0
Rn 0 R p 0

Excess carrier generation and

recombination rate

g n' g 'p
Rn' R p'

n n0 n, p p0 p

n(t ) '
n(t )
'
R R
; Rn R p
n0
p0
'
n

'
p

Continuity equation

Fp

Fp

Fp ( x) Fp ( x dx) Fp ( x) Fp ( x)
.dx ...
.dx
x
x

Fp
p
p

gp
t
x
pt

Fn
n
n

gn
t
x
nt

Time dependent transport equation

p
J p qFp q p pE qD p
x
p
Fp p pE D p
x
n
J n qFn q n nE qDn
x
n
Fn n nE Dn
x
p
( pE )
2 p
p
p
Dp 2 g p
t
x
x
pt
n
(nE )
2n
n
n
Dn 2 g n
t
x
x
nt

 ( pE )
p
E
E
p
x
x
x

p
E
2 p
p
p
p E
p
Dp 2 g p
t
x
x
pt
x
n
E
2n
n
n
n E n
Dn 2 g n
t
x
x
nt
x

n n0 n, p p0 p
n (n) p (p)

t
t t
t

(p )
2 (p )
E
p
(p )
Dp
p E
p
gp
2
t
x
x
x
pt

(n)
2 (n)
E
n
(n)
Dn
n E
n
gn
2
t
x
x
x
nt

Ambipolar Transport
When excess carriers are generated, under external applied field
the excess holes and electrons will try to drift in opposite direction.
However, since electron and holes are charged particles any
separation will induce an internal field between two sets of
particles,
Creating a force that attract electrons and holes back toward each
other.
Only a relatively small internal electric field is sufficient to keep the
Excess electrons and holes drift and diffuse together
The excess electrons and holes do not move independently of each
other, but they drift and diffuse together with same effective
mobility and effective diffusion coefficient. This phenomena is
called ambipolar transport.

E Eapp Eint Eapp

Eint Eapp

q p n Eint
.Eint

0
s
x
For ambipolar transport the excess electrons and excess
holes generate and recombine together

gn g p g

n n0 n, p p0 p

Rn' R p' R

n p

 (p )
2 (p )
E
p
(p )
Dp
p E
p
gp
2
t
x
x
x
pt

(n)
2 (n)
E
n
(n)
Dn
n E
n
gn
2
t
x
x
x
nt

(p )
2 (p )
E
(p )
Dp
p E
p
gR
2
t
x
x
x

(n)
2 (n)
E
(n)
Dn
n E
n
gR
2
t
x
x
x

2 (n)
(n)
n nD p p pDn 2 p n ( p n) E

x
x

(n)
n n p p g R n n p p
t

nn
p p

(n)
(n)
(n)
'
'
D
E
g R
2
x
x
t

'

( p n) p n

nn p p

n nD p p pDn
D
n n p p
'

Dp

Dn kT

p n
q

Ambipolar mobility

Ambipolar diffusion coefficient

Einstein relation

D
'

Ambipolar transport
equation

Dn D p (n p)
Dn n D p p

Ambipolar transport under low injection

2

(p )
(p )
(p )
'
'
D
E
g R
2
x
x
t

'

( p n) p n

D
'

nn p p

Dn D p (n p )
Dn n D p p

For n-type,
n0 >> p0 and n= p << n0
D
'

'

Dn D p [(n0 n) ( p0 p )]
Dn (n0 n) D p ( p0 p )

( p n) p n

nn p p

n p n

nn

Dn D p n 0
Dn n0

Dp

For n-type under low injection, the concentration of

majority carrier electrons will be essentially constant. Then
the probability per unit time of a minority carrier
encountering majority carrier will remain almost a
constant.
(minority carrier hole life time)
pt
p

So the net generation rate

Thermal equilibr gen rate

Excess carrier gen rate

g R g p R p (G p 0 g 'p ) ( R p 0 R p' )
Thermal equilibr recomb rate

Gp0=Rp0

Excess carrier recomb rate

p
gR g R g
p
'
p

'
p

'
p

(p )
(p )
(p )
'
'
D
E
g R
2
x
x
t

' p
D' Dp

p
gR g R g
p
'
p

'
p

'
p

2 (p)
(p) ' p (p )
Dp
p E
g
2
x
x
p
t

n-type, homogenous, low injection

ambipolar transport equation

For ambipolar transport, transport and recombination

parameter is governed by minority carriers
The excess majority carriers diffuse and drift with the
excess minority carriers; the behavior of excess majority
carriers is determined by excess minority carrier

For p-type
2

(n)
(n)
(n)
'
'
D
E
g R
2
x
x
t

' n
D ' Dn

n
gR g R g
n
'
n

'
n

'
n

2 (n)
(n) ' n (n)
Dn
n E
g
2
x
x
n
t

p-type, homogenous, low injection

ambipolar tranport equation

pn junction in forward bias

Positive voltage is applied to the pregion with respect to the n-region.
Potential barrier is reduced.
The electric field induced by
applied voltage is in opposite
direction to thermal equilibrium
space charge field.
Net electric field in space charge
region is reduced below equilibrium
value.
Majority carrier electrons from n
side is injected into p side across
depletion region.
Similarly holes from p-side is
injected into n region.

Assumptions:
for derivation of ideal current voltage relationship
1. Space charge regions have abrupt boundary
2. Maxwell-Boltzman approximation applies to carrier statistics
3. The conception of low injection applies
4. The current is constant through out the pn junction

Boundary condition:
Built-in potential

kT N a N d
Vbi
ln
e ni2

ni2
eVbi
exp

Na Nd
kT
If we assume complete ionization

nn 0 N d

np0

ni2

Na

eVbi
n p 0 nn 0 exp

kT

In forward bias the potential barrier Vbi in equation can

be replaced by (Vbi Va) when the junction is forward
biased.

e(Vbi Va )
n p nn 0 exp

kT

eVbi
eVa )
nn 0 exp
exp

kT
kT
eVa
n p n p 0 exp

kT
The total minority carrier concentration in the p-region is
greater than thermal equilibrium value

Similarly the hole concentration at the edge of n region

due to injection of holes across depletion region under
forward bias

eVa
pn pn 0 exp

kT

Minority carrier distribution

Ambipolar transport equation for excess carrier holes in n region

2 (pn )
(pn ) ' pn (pn )
Dp
p E

g
2
x
x
p
t

pn pn pn 0
In the region x > xn the electric field E = 0 and g = 0. If we
also assume steady state (pn ) / t 0

2 (pn ) pn
Dp

0
2
x
p

2 (pn ) pn

0
2
x
D p p

 2 (pn ) pn
2 0
2
x
Lp
L p D p p

Diffusion length

The excess minority carrier electron concentration in

the p region is

2 (n p ) n p
2 0
2
x
Ln

Ln Dn n

The general solution of above equations

pn ( x) pn ( x) pn 0 Ae

x Lp

Be

x Lp

n p ( x) n p ( x) n p 0 Ce x Ln De x Ln
Boundary condition for total minority carrier concentrations

eVa
pn ( xn ) pn 0 exp

kT

eVa
n p ( x p ) n p 0 exp

kT

p n ( xn ) p n 0

n p ( x p ) n p 0

Minority carriers diffuse from the space charge edge to the

neutral semiconductor region, they recombine with majority
carriers

Applying boundary condition to evaluate the coefficients A, B, C, D

xn x

eVa

pn ( x) pn ( x) pn 0 pn 0 exp
1 exp

kT

Lp

n p ( x) n p ( x) n p 0

x xp

eVa

n p 0 exp
1 exp
kT

Ln

Minority carrier hole diffusion current density

dpn ( x)
J p ( xn ) eD p
dx

x xn

Assuming uniformly doped regions, thermal equilibrium

carrier concentration is constant

d (pn ( x))
J p ( xn ) eD p
dx
x xn
eD p pn 0

eVa
J p ( xn )
exp

L p
kT

Electron diffusion current density at x = -xp

J n ( x p ) eDn

d (n p ( x))
dx

x x p

eDn n p 0

eVa
J n ( x p )
exp
1

Ln
kT

Total current density

eDn n p 0

J J p ( xn ) J n ( x p )

eD p pn 0

eVa

exp

L p
kT

Ln

eVa
J J s exp
1
kT

Js

eDn n p 0

Ln

eD p pn 0
Lp

Js reversed saturation current

Q2: A silicon pn junction at T=300K has following

parameters:
Na=11016cm-3, Nd=51016cm-3
ni = 1.51010cm-3,
Dn=25cm2/s, Dp=10cm2/s,
n0= 510-7s, p0=110-7s
s = 11.7 0
cross sectional area A = 10-3 cm2 and
forward bias voltage = 0.625 V
Calculate (a) minority electron diffusion current at
space charge edge (b) minority hole diffusion current at
space charge edge (c) total current
Q-3: Consider an ideal pn junction diode at T=300K
operating in the forward bias region. Calculate change in
diode voltage that will cause a factor 10 increase in current.

Junction Breakdown

For small reverse bias voltage, the reverse bias current remain small
At some particular voltage the current rises suddenly.
The applied voltage at this point is called breakdown voltage.
There are two physical mechanisms give rise to the reverse-bias
breakdown

(1)Avalanche breakdown
(2) Zener breakdown
Avalanche breakdown process occurs when electron and holes,
moving across space charge region, get sufficient energy from
electric field and collide with atomic electrons to produce
electron-hole pair
Zener breakdown occurs in highly doped pn junction through
tunneling mechanism

Avalanche process

The newly created electron and hole pair in the collision process
moves in opposite direction due to electric field and thereby add to
reverse bias current. Further these electrons and holes acquire
sufficient energy to ionize other atoms, leading to avalanche
process.
Avalanche breakdown is the predominant breakdown mechanism.
for most of diodes.

The reverse bias electron current enters the depletion region at x=0 is In0
The current increases with distance through depletion region due to
avalanche process
At x=W, the electron current may be written as

I n (W ) M n I n 0
Mn is the magnification factor
Incremental electron current

dI n ( x) I n ( x) n dx I p ( x) p dx
dI n ( x)
I n ( x) n I p ( x) p
dx

I I n ( x) I p ( x)
I p ( x) I I n ( x)
dI n ( x)
I n ( x) n ( I I n ( x)) p
dx
dI n ( x)
( p n ) I n ( x) p I
dx
Let us assume that electron and hole ionization rate are equal

p n
dI n ( x)
I
dx

Integrating above equation with the limit x=0 and x=W

W

I n (W ) I n (0) I dx
0

M n I n 0 I n ( 0)
dx
I
0
Also

M n I n 0 I and I n (0) I n 0
W

1
1
dx
Mn 0
Mn approaches infinity at the avalanche breakdown voltage,
thus avalanche condition is give as
W

dx 1
0

Ionization rate is a strong function of electric field in the junction.

Becoz the electric field is not constant in the depletion region the
integration is difficult to calculate.
For simplicity we will consider a one-sided p+n junction, the
maximum electric field is given by

Emax

eN d

xn
s

2 s (Vbi VR )
xn

eN
d

Depletion width is given by

1/ 2

VR can assumed to be much higher than Vbi

2 sVR
xn

eN
d

1/ 2

Equating Emax to the critical field EB and putting VR=VB

eN d
EB
xn
s

E B s
xn
eN d

 2 sVB
xn

eN
d

1/ 2

2 sVB E B s

eN d
eN d

s E B2
VB
2eN d

Prob:1
A symmetrically doped pn junction has doping conc. N a=Nd=51016 cm3
.
If the peak electric field in the junction at breakdown is E=410 5 V/cm,
determine the breakdown voltage of this junction.

Zener breakdown
When pn junction is heavily doped , the
barrier separating the valence band of p-side
and conduction band of n-side is very narrow.
This leads to tunneling of electrons from
valence band to conduction band.
The tunneling probability depends on the
width of the barrier and requires a sharp
metallurgical junction with high doping.

Bipolar Junction Transistor

Bipolar transistor has three separate doped regions

Its equivalent to two pn junction joined back to back
The three terminals are called emitter, base and
collector.
BJT is not symmetrical device, the doping
concentration and geometry are not symmetrical on
both side of base
Emitter is highly doped and base is lightly doped.
Base region is thin and collector region is wide.

Modes of Operation
1. Forward active mode (BaseEmitter junction forward biased
and collector base is reverse
biased)
2. Inverse active mode (BaseEmitter junction forward biased
and collector base is reverse
biased)
3. Saturation mode (Both BE and
BC junction is forward biased
4. Cutoff (Both BE and BC junction
is reverse biased)
We will discuss in detail the transistor operation in forward
active mode for npn transistor

Transistor operation in forward active mode

Base emitter junction is forward-biased, so the electrons from emitter

are injected across BE junction into base.
These electrons create an excess concentration of minority carriers in
base
The BC junction is reverse biased, so the minority carrier electron
concentration at the edge of BC junction is ideally zero
The large gradient in concentration in the base region lead to injection
of electrons into BC space charge region
The electric field in the space charge region sweeps the electron into the
collector
As we want as many electrons as possible to reach the collector without
recombining with majority carriers in the base, the width of base is made

Band diagram of npn transistor in zero and forward active mode

Minority carrier distribution of npn transistor in FA mode

xE, xB , xC width of neutral emitter, base and collector regions

DE, DB , DC diffusion coefficient
LE, LB , LC Diffusion legth
E, B , C minority carrier life time

pE0, nB0, pC0 the thermal equilibrium minority carriers in emitter,

base and collector region
pE(x), nB(x), pC(x) steady state minority concentration in
emitter, base and collector
pE(x), nB(x), pC(x) excess minority carriers in emitter, base
and collector

Excess minority carrier distribution in base region

The steady state excess minority carrier electron concentration
is found from the ambipolar transport equation.
For zero electric field in the neutral base region, the ambipolar
transport equation is in steady state reduces to

2 (nB ( x)) nB ( x)
DB

0
2
x
B0

nB ( x) nB ( x) nB 0
The general solution of the above equation

x
x
B exp

nB ( x) A exp
LB
LB

Diffusion length

LB DB B 0

The excess minority carrier concentration at the boundary x=0

nB ( x 0) nB ( x 0) nB 0

eVBE
nB 0 exp
kT

1 A B

The excess minority carrier concentration at the boundary x=x B

nB ( x xB ) nB ( x xB ) nB 0 nB 0
xB
xB
B exp

A exp
LB
LB

Above two equations can be solved to find out A and B

xB

eVBE

nB 0 nB 0 exp
1 exp
LB
kT

A
xB

2 sinh
LB

xB

nB 0
1 exp

LB
xB

2 sinh
LB

eVBE
nB 0 exp
kT

nB 0

nB ( x)

eVBE
exp
kT

xB x
x

sinh

1 sinh

LB
LB
xB

sinh
LB

This seems a very complicated

function which can be simplified by
considering the base width to be
small compared to diffusion length

sinh( y ) y
for y 1

nB 0

nB ( x)

nB 0
nB ( x)
xB

eVBE
exp
kT

xB x x


1

LB LB
xB

LB

eVBE
exp
kT

1 xB x x

Similarly we can derive the variation excess hole concentration in the

Emitter region

xE x'

eVBE

pE 0 exp
1 sinh
LE
kT

pE ( x' )
xE

sinh
LE

pE 0
pE ( x' )
xE

eVBE
exp
kT

1 xE x'

Excess minority carrier hole concentration in the collector is given by

x' '

pC ( x' ' ) pC 0 exp

LC

Current density components

JnE: Current density due to diffusion of minority carrier

electron in the base
JnC: Due to diffusion of minority carrier electron in the
collector
JRB: The difference between JnE and JnC, which is due to
recombination of excess minority carrier electrons with
majority carrier holes in the base. JRB is the current flow
of holes into base to replace the holes lost by
recombination
JpE: Due to diffusion of minority carrier holes in the
emitter region
JR: due to recombination of carriers in the forward bias
BE junction
Jpc0: due to diffusion of minority carrier holes in
collector
JG: due to generation of carriers in reverse bias BC

The dc common base current gain is defined as

IC
0
IE
If active cross sectional area is same for collector and emitter

J C J nC J G J pc 0
0

JE
J nE J R J pE
The small signal common base current gain is defined as

J C
J nC

J E J nE J R J pE
The reverse bias BC current, JG and Jpc0 are not a function
of emitter current

We can rewrite the equation in the form

J C
J nE

J E J nE J pE
T

J nE
J nE J pE

J nC
T
J nE

J nC

J
nE

J nE J pE

J nE J R J pE

Emitter injection efficiency factor

Base transport factor

J nE J pE

J J J
R
pE
nE

Recombination factor

We would like to have the change in collector current be exactly

same as the change in emitter current, or ideally to have =1.
However, will always be less than unity.
The goal is to make as close to one as possible.
To achieve this, we have to make each term in the equation close to
one

Mathematical derivation of current gain facto

Emitter injection efficiency factor

J nE

J nE J pE

1
J pE
J nE

J pE

d (pE ( x' ))
eDE
dx'
x ' 0

J nE

d (nB ( x))
eDB
dx
x 0

J pE

J nE

eDE

LE

eDB nB 0

LB

eVBE
exp kT

1
1 .

tanh xE / LE

exp(eVBE / kT ) 1

tanh xB / LB
sinh( xB / LB )

If we assume that the B-E junction is biased sufficiently far in the

forward bias so that VBE kT / e

exp(eVBE / kT ) 1

exp(eVBE / kT )
1
tanh xB / LB
sinh xB / LB

p D L tanh xB / LB
1 E0 E B .
nB 0 DB LE tanh xE / LE
Assuming all parameters in the equation except pE0 and nB0 are fixed,
then in order for 1, we must have pE0<< nB0
If NE and NB are doping concentration in the emitter and base respectively

pE 0

ni2
ni2

and nB 0
NE
NB

pE0<< nB0 implies NE>>NB, for emitter injection efficiency factor to be

close to unity the emitter doping must be large compared to base doping.
If both xB << LB and xE << LE

N D x
1 B E B
N E DB xE

Base transport factor

J nC
T
J nE

J nC

eDB nB 0

LB

J nE

eDB nB 0

LB

J nC

d (nB ( x))
eDB
dx
x xB

J nE

d (nB ( x))
eDB
dx
x 0

1
exp(eVBE / kT ) 1

sinh xB / LB
tanh( xB / LB )

1
exp(eVBE / kT ) 1

tanh xB / LB
sinh( xB / LB )

If we again assume that the B-E junction is biased sufficiently far in

the forward bias so that
VBE kT / e

exp(eVBE / kT ) 1

J nC
T
J nE

exp(eVBE / kT ) cosh( xB / LB )

1 exp(eVBE / kT ) cosh( xB / LB )

1
T
cosh( xB / LB )
We may expand the cosh function Taylor series, so that

1
T

cosh( xB / LB )

1
1 xB

1
2 LB

1 xB

1
2 LB

T will be close to one if xB <LB

Recombination factor

J nE J pE

J J J
R
pE
nE

J nE
1

J nE J R 1 J R J nE

We have assumed JpE << JnE

exBE ni
eVBE
eVBE
JR
exp
J r 0 exp

2 0
kT
kT
J nE

eDB nB 0
eVBE

exp
LB tanh( xB / LB )
kT

Jr0
eVBE
1
exp

J s0
kT

eVBE
J s 0 exp

kT

Recombination factor is function of B-E

voltage. As VBE increases the
recombination current becomes less
dominant and recombination factor
approached unity.

1
2

J
N B DE xB 1 xB
eVBE
r 0 exp
1
.
.

N E DB xE 2 LB
J s0
kT

Common emitter current gain

Prob 1: If the emitter doping is NE=51018cm-3, find the base doping

concentration such that the emitter injection efficiency = 0.995.
Assume xE=2xB=2 m.
Prob 2: Assume T= =0.9967, xB=xE=1 m, NB = 51016 cm-3
NE=51018cm-3. Determine common emitter current gain .
(DE= 8 cm2/s, DB=20 cm2/s)

Non-ideal effects in BJT

We have been considering BJTs which has
Uniform doped regions
low injection
Constant emitter and base width
Uniform current densities
Absence of junction breakdown
Transistor properties will deviate from the ideal characteristics if any of
these conditions are not met.
We will consider few important deviations that highly affect transistor
characteristics

Base width modulation: Early effect

We have been assuming that the neutral base width x B is constant.
However in practice it will be a function of the BC junction voltage, the
width of BC space charge region extending into base region varies with B-C
voltage.

Increase VBC (reverse bias), increase the space charge region width

This reduces xB

This will cause an increase in concentration gradient in base region

This will increase the diffusion current through the base
This result in an increase in the collector current

This is known as Early effect: Early being the first person who identified
this problem

The change in base width and the change in minority carrier

concentration gradient as BC space charge width changes

The collector current is plotted against CE voltage- the extent to which

a structure is influenced by Early effect is represented by the Early
voltage

Ideally the current is independent of B-C voltage, the slope in the

above graph should be zero.
The Early effect gives a non-zero slope and leads to finite output
conductance
If the collector current characteristics is extrapolated to zero
collector current, the curves intersect the voltage axis at a point
defined as the Early voltage
This is an important parameter in transistor design
typical values are in 100-300V range

We can write that,

dI C
IC
g0
dVCE
VCE VA
VA and VCE are defined as positive quantities and g0 is defined as the
output conductance. We can rewrite the above equation

I C g 0 VCE VA
Showing explicitly the collector current is now a function of C-E
or C-B voltage
Questions: how would you use doping levels in an npn structure to
influenced Early voltage

Calculate the change in the neutral base width with change in C-B
voltage.
Consider a uniformly doped BJT at T=300K with base doping NB =
51016 cm-3 and collector doping NC = 21015 cm-3. Assume metallurgical
base width is 0.70m. Calculate the change in neutral base width as CB
voltage changes from 2 to 10V.
Calculate change in collector current with change in neutral base width,
and estimate Early voltage
Assume DB = 25 cm2/s, and VBE=0.60V and also assume xB<<LB.
Solution:

xdB

xdB

2 s (Vbi VCB ) N C

1

e
N
N

N
B
B C

1/ 2

2(11.7)(8.85 10 14 )(Vbi VCB ) 2 1015

1

19
16
15
16
1.6 10
5 10 2 10 5 10

xdB 9.96 10 12 (Vbi VCB )

1/ 2

1/ 2

kT N B N C
Vbi
ln
0.718V
2
e ni
For VCB = 2V

xdB 9.96 10

12

(0.718 2)

1/ 2

0.052 m

xB 0.70 0.052 0.648m

For VCB = 10V

xdB 9.96 10

12

(0.718 10)

1/ 2

0.103m

xB 0.70 0.103 0.597 m

nB 0

nB ( x)

eVBE
exp
kT

xB x
x

sinh

1 sinh

LB
LB
xB

sinh
LB

nB 0
nB ( x)
xB

eVBE
exp
kT

1 xB x x

d (nB ( x)) eDB nB 0

eVBE
J C eDB

exp

dx
xB
kT
nB 0

10 2

n
1.5 10

NB
5 1016
2
i

4.5 103

(1.6 10 19 )(25)(4.5 103 )

0.6
2
JC
exp

3
.
2
A
/
cm

4
0.648 10
0.0259
dJ C
JC
J C

dVCE VCE VA VCE

J C 3.47 3.20
JC
3.20

VCE 10.6 2.6 VCE Va 2.6 Va

Va 92V

High Injection
So far we assumed low injection conditions

The minority carrier concentration remains low compared to

majority carrier conc
As VBE increases, the injected minority carrier conc may approach or
even exceed the majority carrier conc
This will cause two things to happen

Reduction in emitter efficiency

The collector current will increase at a slower rate

If we assume quasi-charge neutrality, then majority carrier hole

concentration increases in the p-type base at x=0 as shown in fig

First effect - reduction in emitter efficiency

Since the majority carrier hole concentration at x = 0 increases
with high injection, more holes are injected back into the
emitter due to the forward biased B-E voltage
An increase in hole injection causes an increase in the J PE
current and an increase in JPE reduces the emitter injection
efficiency
Hence, the common emitter current gain decreases
under conditions of high injection
This is illustrated below, where the common emitter gain for a typical
BJT is plotted against collector current
The low gain at low currents is due to the small recombination factor
and the drop-off at the high current is due to the high injection effect

Common emitter current gain versus collector current

Second effect - slower increase in collector current with V BE

At low injection the majority carrier hole concentration at x =0

for the npn BJT is,

and the minority carrier electron concentration is

The p-n product is,

At high injection this last equation still applies. However, p P(0)

will also increase, and for very high injection it will increase at
nearly the same rate as nP(0)
This will asymptotically approach the function

The excess minority carrier concentration in the base, and

hence the collector current, will increase at a slower rate
with B-E voltage in high injection than low injection

Emitter bandgap narrowing

As silicon becomes heavily doped the discrete donor energy level in
an n-type emitter splits into a band of energies
The distance between donor atoms decreases as the
concentration increases, and the splitting is caused by the
interaction of the donor atoms with each other
As the doping continues to increase, the donor band widens,
becomes skewed, and moves upward towards the conduction band
edge, eventually merging with it
At this point the effective band gap has decreased
A reduction in the bandgap energy increases the intrinsic
carrier concentration

In a heavily doped emitter, the intrinsic carrier concentration

can be written as,

where Eg0 is the bandgap energy at a low doping concentration

and Eg is the bandgap narrowing factor
The emitter injection efficiency factor is (as before),

The term PE0 is the thermal-equilibrium minority carrier concentration in

the emitter and can be written as,

As the emitter doping increases, Eg increases, thus pE0 does not

continue to decrease with emitter doping - ie emitter injection
efficiency begins to fall off rather than increasing with emitter doping

Breakdown voltage
Two mechanism to be considered

Punch-through
Avalanche Breakdown

Punch-through
As the reverse-bias B-C voltage increases, the depletion region
encroaches further into the base and can eventually occupy all of it
B-E potential barrier is lowered because of C-B voltage
The lowering of potential barrier at B-E junction produces a large
increase in current with small increase in C-B volatge
This will cause a large surge in collector current and loss of
transistor action

Energy band diagram of an npn transistor in thermal equilibrium

and reverse bias BC voltage before punch-through

Neglecting the contribution to base narrowing from the forward

biased E-B junction, punch-through will occur when
xdB = WB where,

xdB

2 s (Vbi V pt ) N C
WB

e
N
B

NC N B

1/ 2

where Vpt is the reverse-biased B-C voltage at punch-through

neglecting Vbi compared to Vpt, we can solve Vpt as,

eWB2 N B ( N C N B )
V pt
2 s
NC
The metallurgical base width of a silicon npn transistor is
WB=0.8m. The base and collector doping concentrations are
NB=21016 cm-3 and NB=21016 cm-3. Find the punch-through
breakdown voltage.

Avalanche breakdown

Reverse bias voltage applied to B-C

junction with emitter left open. The
current ICBO is the reverse bias
junction current

Reverse bias voltage applied to C-E

junction with base left open. This
bias also makes B-C junction
reverse biased. The current ICEO is
the reverse bias junction current

Part of ICBO in open base configuration is due to flow of minority

carrier holes from collector across B-C space charge region into
base.
The flow of holes into base makes the base positive with respect to
emitter and B-E junction becomes forward biased.
The forward biased B-E junction produces a current ICEO, primarily
due to injection of electrons from emitter into base.
The injected electron diffuse across base and subjected to
recombination processes
When electrons reach B-C junction the current component is given
by ICEO.

I CEO I CEO I CBO

I CEO

I CBO

I CBO
1

common emitter current gain

When the transistor is biased in open-emitter configuration the

current ICBO at breakdown becomes M ICBO, where M is the
multiplication factor.
An empirical approximation for multiplication factor is written as

1
M
n
1 VCB BVCBO

n is an empirical constant (between 3 and 6) and BV CBO is B-C

breakdown voltage with emitter open
When transistor is biased with base open, the current in B-C junction at
breakdown are multiplied, so that

I CEO M (I CEO I CBO )

I CEO

MI CBO

1 M

The condition for breakdown corresponds to

M=1

1
n
n
1 VCB BVCBO
1 BVCEO BVCBO
Solving this

BVCEO BVCBO n 1

Normally 1, so that

BVCEO BVCBO

1
n

1
1

Relative breakdown voltage and saturation current in open base

and open emitter configuration

Metal-Semiconductor junction
Metal semiconductor contact is critically
important element in all semiconductor
device
The contact can have rectifying
characteristics like pn junction. This type of
rectifying contact device is called rectifying
Schottky
The otherdiode
type of contact can be nonrectifying and have small resistance,
usually referred as ohmic contact

Energy band diagram of an isolated metal adjacent to

an isolated n-type semiconductor

m s

m Work function of metal

s Work function of semiconductor
electron affinity of semiconductor

q (s ) EC E F kT ln N c N d

q ( s ) E F EV E g kT ln N v N d

Energy band diagram of a metal-n semiconductor

contact in thermal equilibrium.

Schottky barrier diode

The potential barrier seen by

electrons in the metal trying to
move the semiconductor, Shottky
barrier

Bn (m )

The potential barrier seen by

electrons in the semiconductor
trying to move to metal

Vbi Bn n

(m ) kT ln N c N d

Measured barrier height ms for metal-Si and metalGaAs contacts

Energy band diagrams of metal n-type and p-type semiconductors

under thermal equilibrium

Energy band diagrams of metal n-type and p-type

semiconductors under forward bias

Charge distribution

eN
eN
( x)
d dx d x C2
s
s
s
At

0
electric-field
distribution

eN d
xn C 2
s

x = xn E =0

C2

eN d
xn
s

eN d
E
( xn x )
s

W
0

Emax

eN d xn

Depletion width

2 s (Vbi VR )
W xn

eN d

1/ 2

A negative surface charge exist in the metal at the metal

semiconductor junction

Junction capacitance

1

C

dxn eN d s
C eN d

dx 2(Vbi VR )
2

2(Vbi VR )

eN d s

1/ 2

Prob-1
Consider an ideal chromium to n-type silicon Schottky diode at T=300K.
The semiconductor is doped at a concentration of Nd=31015 cm-3 and
the work function of chromium is 4.5 eV. Determine (a) Shottky barrier
height (b) built in potential (c) peak electric field with an reverse
applied reverse bias voltage of VR=5V and (d) junction capacitance per
unit area.
Prob: 2

1/C2 versus applied voltage for W-Si and W-GaAs diodes

1/C
vs
V
If straight line constant doping profile
2

slope = doping concentration

If not straight line, can be used to find profile
Intercept = Vbi can be used to find Bn
Bn Vn Vbi
kT ND
Vn
ln

q ni