Lymphatic System
1. Lymph:
a fluid similar to plasma
does not have plasma proteins
2. Lymphatic vessels (lymphatics):
network that carries lymph from peripheral
tissues to the venous system
3. Lymphoid tissues and lymphoid organs:
found throughout the body
4. Lymphocytes, phagocytes, and other
immune system cells
Function of the
Lymphatic System
To produce, maintain, and distribute
lymphocytes**Lymphocyte Production:
- Lymphocytes are produced:
in lymphoid tissues (e.g., tonsils)
lymphoid organs (e.g., spleen, thymus)
and in red bone marrow
** Lymphocytes Distribution:
detect problems
travel into site of injury or infection
Lymphocyte Circulation
From blood to interstitial fluid (lymph)
through capillaries
Returns to venous blood through
lymphatic vessels
The Circulation of Fluids
From blood plasma to lymph and back
to the venous system
Also transports hormones, nutrients,
and waste products
Lymphatic Vessels
Are vessels that carry lymph
Lymphatic system begins with smallest
vessels: lymphatic capillaries (terminal
lymphatics)
Lymphatic Capillaries Differ from blood capillaries in 4 ways:
start as pockets rather than tubes
have larger diameters
have thinner walls
flat or irregular in section
Lymphatic Capillaries
Endothelialcellsloosely
boundtogetherwith
overlap
Overlapactsasoneway
valve:
allowsfluids,solutes,
viruses,andbacteria
toenter
preventsreturnto
intercellularspace
Figure 222
Lacteals
Are special lymphatic capillaries in
small intestine
Transport lipids from digestive tract
Lymphatic Vessels and Valves
Figure 223
Lymph Flow
From lymphatic capillaries to larger
lymphatic vessels containing one-way
valves
Lymphatic vessels travel with veins
Lymphatic Ducts and
the Venous System
Figure 224
The Lymphatic System
Is divided into:
1) Superficial lymphatics - located in:
skin
mucus membranes
serous membranes lining body
2) Deep lymphatics- Are larger vessels that
accompany deep arteries and veins
Superficial and Deep Lymphatics
Join to form large lymphatic trunks
Trunks empty into 2 major collecting
vessels:
thoracic duct
right lymphatic duct
The Inferior Thoracic Duct
Collects lymph from:
left bronchiomediastinal trunk
left subclavian trunk
left jugular trunk
Empties into left subclavian vein
The Right Lymphatic Duct
Collects lymph from:
right jugular trunk
right subclavian trunk
right bronchiomediastinal trunk
Empties into right subclavian vein
Lymphedema
Blockage of lymph drainage from a limb
Causes severe swelling
Interferes with immune system function
Production and Distribution
of Lymphocytes
Figure 225
Lymphopoiesis
Lymphocyte production involves:
bone marrow
thymus
peripheral lymphoid tissues
Hemocytoblasts : In bone marrow,
divide into 2 types of lymphoid stem
cells
Lymphoid Stem Cells
Group 1:
remain in bone marrow
produce B cells and natural killer cells
Group 2:
migrate to thymus
produce T cells in environment isolated by
blood-thymus barrier
T Cells and B Cells
Migrate throughout the body:
to defend peripheral tissues
Retain their ability to divide:
is essential to immune system function
What are the structures
and functions of lymphoid
tissues and organs?
Lymphoid Tissues :
Connective tissues dominated by
lymphocytes
Lymphoid Nodules
Figure 226
Lymphoid Nodule
Areolar tissue with densely packed
lymphocytes
Germinal center contains dividing
lymphocytes
Distribution of Lymphoid Nodules
Lymph nodes
Spleen
Respiratory tract (tonsils)
Along digestive and urinary tracts
Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid
Tissue (MALT)
Lymphoid tissues associated with the
digestive system:
aggregated lymphoid nodules:
clustered deep to intestinal epithelial lining
Appendix:
mass of fused lymphoid nodules
The 5 Tonsils
In wall of pharynx:
left and right palatine tonsils
pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid)
2 lingual tonsils
Lymphoid Organs
Lymph nodes
Thymus
Spleen
Are separated from surrounding tissues
By a fibrous connective-tissue capsule
Lymph Nodes
Range from 125 mm diameter
Figure 227
Afferent Lymphatic Vessels
Carry lymph:
from peripheral tissues to lymph node
Efferent Lymphatic Vessels
Leave lymph node at hilus
Carry lymph to venous circulation
Lymph from Afferent Lymphatics
Flows through lymph node in a network of
sinuses:
From subcapsular sinus:
contains macrophages and dendritic cells
Through outer cortex:
contains B cells within germinal centers
Through deep cortex:
dominated by T cells
Through the core (medulla):
contains B cells and plasma cells
organized into medullary cords
Into hilus and efferent lymphatics
Lymph Node
A filter:
purifies lymph before return to venous
circulation
Removes:
debris
pathogens
99% of antigens
Lymphoid Functions
Lymphoid tissues and lymph nodes:
distributed to monitor peripheral
infections
respond before infections reach vital
organs of trunk
Lymph Nodes of Gut, Trachea,
Lungs, and Thoracic Duct
Protect against pathogens in digestive
and respiratory systems
Lymph Glands
Large lymph nodes at groin and base of
neck
Swell in response to inflammation
Lymphadenopathy
Chronic or excessive enlargement of
lymph nodes may indicate infections,
endocrine disorders, or cancer
The Thymus
Figure 228
The Thymus
Located in mediastinum
Deteriorates after puberty:
diminishing effectiveness of immune
system
Divisions of the Thymus Thymus is
divided into 2 thymic lobes
Septa divide lobes into smaller lobules
A Thymic Lobule
Contains a dense outer cortex
And a pale central medulla
Thymus Hormones
Thymosins
Promote development of lymphocytes
Lymphocytes
Divide in the cortex
T cells migrate into medulla
Mature T cells leave thymus by
medullary blood vessels
Reticular Epithelial
Cells in the Cortex
Surround lymphocytes in cortex
Maintain blood-thymus barrier
Secrete thymic hormones that
stimulate:
stem cell divisions
T cell differentiation
Reticular Epithelial
Cells in the Medulla
Form concentric layers (Hassalls
corpuscles)
The medulla has no bloodthymus
barrier:
T cells can enter or leave bloodstream
The Spleen
Figure 229
3 Functions of the Spleen
1. Removal of abnormal blood cells and other
blood components by phagocytosis
2. Storage of iron recycled from red blood cells
3. Initiation of immune responses by B cells
and T cells:
in response to antigens in circulating blood
Structure of the Spleen
Attached to stomach by gastrosplenic
ligament
Contacts diaphragm and left kidney
Splenic veins, arteries, and lymphatic
vessels:
communicate with spleen at hilus
Structure of the Spleen
Inside fibrous capsule:
Red pulp: contains many red blood cells
Contains elements of circulating
blood plus fixed & free macrophages
White pulp: resembles lymphoid
nodules
Trabecular Arteries
Branch and radiate toward capsule
Finer branches surrounded by white
pulp
Capillaries discharge red blood cells
into red pulp
Splenic Circulation
Blood passes through:
network of reticular fibers
Then enters large sinusoids (lined by
macrophages):
which empty into trabecular veins
Spleen Function
Phagocytes and other lymphocytes in
spleen:
identify and attack damaged and infected
cells
in circulating blood
The
Respiratory
System
Respiration Includes
Pulmonary ventilation
Air moves in and out of lungs
Continuous replacement of gases in alveoli (air sacs)
External respiration
Gas exchange between blood and air at alveoli
O2 (oxygen) in air diffuses into blood
CO2 (carbon dioxide) in blood diffuses into air
Transport of respiratory gases
Between the lungs and the cells of the body
Performed by the cardiovascular system
Blood is the transporting fluid
Internal respiration
Gas exchange in capillaries between blood and tissue cells
O2 in blood diffuses into tissues
CO2 waste in tissues diffuses into blood
48
Cellular Respiration
Oxygen (O2) is used by the cells
O2 needed in conversion of glucose to
cellular energy (ATP)
All body cells
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is produced as a
waste product
The bodys cells die if either the
respiratory or cardiovascular system fails
49
The Respiratory Organs
Conducting zone
Respiratory passages
that carry air to the site
of gas exchange
Filters, humidifies and
warms air
Respiratory zone
Site of gas exchange
Composed of
Respiratory bronchioles
Alveolar ducts
Alveolar sacs
Conductingzonelabeled50
Conductingzonewillbecoveredfirst
Nose
Provides airway
Moistens and warms air
Filters air
Resonating chamber
for speech
Olfactory receptors
Externalnose
51
Nasal cavity
Air passes through nares (nostrils)
Nasal septum divides nasal cavity in midline (to right & left halves)
Perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone, vomer and septal cartilage
Connects with pharynx posteriorly through choanae (posterior nasal
apertures*)
Floor is formed by palate (roof of the mouth)
Anterior hard palate and posterior soft palate
palate
52
Linings of nasal cavity
Vestibule* (just above nostrils)
Lined with skin containing sebaceous and sweat glands and nose hairs
Filters large particulars (insects, lint, etc.)
The remainder of nasal cavity: 2 types of mucous membrane
Small patch of olfactory mucosa near roof (cribriform plate)
Respiratory mucosa: lines most of the cavity
Olfactorymucosa
53
Respiratory
Mucosa
Pseudostratified
ciliated columnar epithelium
Scattered goblet cells
Underlying connective tissue lamina propria
Mucous cells secrete mucous
Serous cells secrete watery fluid with
digestive enzymes, e.g. lysozyme
Together all these produce a quart/day
Dead junk is swallowed
54
NasalConchae
Inferiortoeachisameatus*
Increasesturbulenceofair
3scrolllikestructures
Reclaimsmoistureonthewayout
*
*
Ofethmoid
(itsownbone)
*
55
Paranasal sinuses
Frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid and maxillary bones
Open into nasal cavity
Lined by same mucosa as nasal cavity and
perform same functions
Also lighten the skull
Can get infected: sinusitis
56
The Pharynx (throat)
3 parts: naso-, oro- and laryngopharynx
Houses tonsils (they respond to inhaled antigens)
Uvula closes off nasopharynx during swallowing so food doesnt go into
nose
Epiglottis posterior to the tongue: keeps food out of airway
Oropharynx and laryngopharynx serve as common passageway for food
and air
Lined with stratified squamous epithelium for protection
*
*
57
The Larynx (voicebox)
Extends from the level of the 4th to the 6th cervical
vertebrae
Attaches to hyoid bone superiorly
Inferiorly is continuous with trachea (windpipe)
Three functions:
1. Produces vocalizations (speech)
2. Provides an open airway (breathing)
3. Switching mechanism to route air and food into
proper channels
Closed during swallowing
Open during breathing
58
Behind thyroid cartilage and above cricoid: 3
pairs of small cartilages
1. Arytenoid: anchor the vocal cords
2. Corniculate
3. Cuneiform
9th cartilage: epiglottis
59
Cough reflex: keeps all but air out of
airways
Low position of larynx is required for
speech (although makes choking easier)
Paired vocal ligaments: elastic fibers, the
core of the true vocal cords
60
Pair of mucosal vocal folds (true vocal
cords) over the ligaments: white because
avascular
61
Glottis is the space between the vocal cords
Laryngeal muscles control length and size of opening by moving
arytenoid cartilages
Sound is produced by the vibration of vocal cords as air is exhaled
62
Trachea (the windpipe)
Descends: larynx through neck into mediastinum
Divides in thorax into two main (primary) bronchi
16-20 C-shaped rings
of hyaline cartilage
joined by fibroelastic
connective tissue
Flexible for bending
but stays open despite
pressure changes
during breathing
63
Posterior open parts of tracheal cartilage abut esophagus
Trachealis muscle can decrease diameter of trachea
Esophagus can expand when food swallowed
Food can be forcibly expelled
Wall of trachea has layers common to many tubular organs
filters, warms and moistens incoming air
Mucous membrane (pseudostratified epithelium with cilia and lamina
propria with sheet of elastin)
Submucosa ( with seromucous glands)
Adventitia - connective tissue which contains the tracheal cartilages)
64
65
Bronchial tree bifurcation
Right main bronchus (more susceptible to
aspiration)
Left main bronchus
Each main or primary bronchus runs into hilus
of lung posterior to pulmonary vessels
1.Obliquefissure
2.Vertebralpart
3.Hilumoflung
4.Cardiacimpression
5.Diaphragmaticsurface
(Wikipedia)
66
Main=primary bronchi divide into
secondary=lobar bronchi, each supplies
one lobe
3 on the right
2 on the left
Lobar bronchi branch into tertiary =
segmental bronchi
Continues dividing: about 23 times
Tubes smaller than 1 mm called bronchioles
Smallest, terminal bronchioles, are less the 0.5 mm
diameter
Tissue changes as becomes smaller
Cartilage plates, not rings, then disappears
Pseudostratified columnar to simple columnar to simple
cuboidal without mucus or cilia
Smooth muscle important: sympathetic relaxation
(bronchodilation), parasympathetic constriction
(bronchoconstriction)
67
Respiratory Zone
End-point of respiratory tree
Structures that contain air-exchange chambers are called alveoli
Respiratory bronchioles lead into alveolar ducts: walls consist of alveoli
Ducts lead into terminal clusters called alveolar sacs are microscopic chambers
There are 3 million alveoli!
68
Gas Exchange
Air filled alveoli account for most of the lung volume
Very great area for gas exchange (1500 sq ft)
Alveolar wall
Single layer of squamous epithelial cells (type 1 cells)
surrounded by basal lamina
0.5um (15 X thinner than tissue paper)
External wall covered by cobweb of capillaries
Respiratory membrane: fusion of the basal laminas
of
Alveolar wall
Capillary wall
(airononeside;
bloodonthe
other)
Respiratory
bronchiole
Alveolar
duct
Alveoli69
Alveolarsac
Bronchial
tree and
associated
Pulmonary
arteries
70
This air-blood barrier (the respiratory
membrane) is where gas exchange occurs
Oxygen diffuses from air in alveolus (singular
of alveoli) to blood in capillary
Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood in
thecapillaryintotheairin
thealveolus
71
Surfactant
Type II cuboidal epithelial cells are
scattered in alveolar walls
Surfactant is a detergent-like substance
which is secreted in fluid coating alveolar
surfaces it decreases tension
Without it the walls would stick together
during exhalation
Premature babies problem breathing is
largely because lack surfactant
72
Microscopic detail of alveoli
Alveoli surrounded by fine elastic fibers
Alveoli interconnect via alveolar pores
Alveolar macrophages free floating dust cells
Note type I and type II cells and joint membrane
73
74
Lungs and Pleura
Aroundeachlungisaflattenedsac
ofserousmembranecalledpleura
Parietalpleuraouterlayer
Visceralpleuradirectlyonlung
Pleural cavity slit-like potential space filled with
pleural fluid
Lungs can slide but separation from pleura is resisted
(like film between 2 plates of glass)
Lungs cling to thoracic wall and are forced to expand
and recoil as volume of thoracic cavity changes during
breathing
75
Lungs
Each is cone-shaped with anterior, lateral and
posterior surfaces contacting ribs
Superior tip is apex, just deep to clavicle
Concave inferior surface resting on diaphragm is
the base
apex
base
apex
base
76
Hilus or (hilum)
Indentation on mediastinal (medial) surface
Place where blood vessels, bronchi, lymph vessel, and
nerves enter and exit the lung
Root of the lung
Above structures attaching lung to mediastinum
Main ones: pulmonary artery and veins and main
bronchus
77
MedialviewRlung
MedialviewofLlung
Each lobe is made up of bronchopulmonary
segments separated by dense connective tissue
Each segment receives air from an individual
segmental (tertiary) bronchus
Approximately 10 bronchopulmonary segments in each
lung
Limit spread of infection
Can be removed more easily because only small
vessels span segments
Smallest subdivision seen with the naked eye is
the lobule
Hexagonal on surface, size of pencil eraser
Served by large bronchiole and its branches
Black carbon is visible on connective tissue separating
individual lobules in smokers and city dwellers
78
Pulmonary arteries bring oxygen-poor blood to
the lungs for oxygenation
They branch along with the bronchial tree
The smallest feed into the pulmonary capillary
network around the alveoli
Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from
the alveoli of the lungs to the heart
79
Understandtheconcepts;youdontneed
toknowthenamesofthetertiarybronchi
Doesthisclarifyalittle?
Primarybronchus:
(Leftmain)
Secondary:
(leftlowerlobarbronchus)
(supplying
leftlower
lobe)
Bronchopulmonary means both bronchial tubes
and lung alveoli together
Bronchopulmonary segment chunk receiving air from
a segmental (tertiary) bronchus*: tertiary means its
the third order in size; also, the trachea has divided
three times now
Anatomical dead space
The conducting zone which doesnt participate in gas
80
exchange
Ventilation
Breathing = pulmonary ventilation
Pulmonary means related to the lungs
Two phases
Inspiration (inhalation) air in
Expiration (exhalation) air out
Mechanical forces cause the movement of air
Gases always flow from higher pressure to lower
For air to enter the thorax, the pressure of the air in
it has to be lower than atmospheric pressure
Making the volume of the thorax larger means the air inside
it is under less pressure
(the air has more space for as many gas particles, therefore
it is under less pressure)
The diaphragm and intercostal muscles accomplish this
81
Muscles of Inspiration
During inspiration, the
dome shaped diaphragm
flattens as it contracts
Together:
This increases the height of
the thoracic cavity
The external intercostal
muscles contract to raise
the ribs
This increases the
circumference of the
thoracic cavity
82
Inspiration continued
Intercostals keep the thorax stiff so sides dont
collapse in with change of diaphragm
During deep or forced inspiration, additional
muscles are recruited:
Scalenes
Sternocleidomastoid
Pectoralis minor
Quadratus lumborum on 12th rib
Erector spinae
(some of these accessory muscles of ventilation are
visible to an observer; it usually tells you that there is
respiratory distress working hard to breathe)
83
Expiration
Quiet expiration in healthy people is
chiefly passive
Inspiratory muscles relax
Rib cage drops under force of gravity
Relaxing diaphragm moves superiorly
(up)
Elastic fibers in lung recoil
Volumes of thorax and lungs decrease
simultaneously, increasing the pressure
Air is forced out
84
Quiet Breathing
Briefactivityin
theDRG:
stimulates
inspiratory
muscles
DRGneurons
become
inactive:
allowing
passive
exhalation
Figure 2325a
Expiration continued
Forced expiration is active
Contraction of abdominal wall muscles
Oblique and transversus predominantly
Increases intra-abdominal pressure forcing the
diaphragm superiorly
Depressing the rib cage, decreases thoracic
volume
Some help from internal intercostals and latissimus
dorsi
(try this on yourself to feel the different muscles acting)
86
Forced Breathing
Increasedactivityin
DRG:
stimulatesVRG
whichactivates
accessoryinspiratory
muscles
Afterinhalation:
expiratorycenter
neuronsstimulate
activeexhalation
Figure 2325b
Pneumothorax (collapsed lung)
Think about the processes involved and
then try and imagine the various
scenarios
1. Trauma causing the thoracic wall to be
pierced so air gets into the pleura
2. Broken rib can do (1); always do a CXR if
theres a broken rib
3. Visceral pleura breaks, letting alveolar air
into pleural space
88
Pneumothorax
89
Respiratory Centers of the Brain
When oxygen demand rises:
cardiac output and respiratory rates
increase under neural control
Have both voluntary and involuntary
components
Involuntary Centers
Regulate respiratory muscles
In response to sensory information
Voluntary Centers
In cerebral cortex affect:
respiratory centers of pons and medulla
oblongata
motor neurons that control respiratory
muscles
The Respiratory Centers
3 pairs of nuclei in the reticular
formation of medulla oblongata and
pons
Respiratory Rhythmicity Centers of
the Medulla Oblongata
Set the pace of respiration
Can be divided into 2 groups:
Dorsal respiratory group (DRG)
Inspiratory center
Functions in quiet and forced breathing
Inspiratory and expiratory center
Functions only in forced breathing
Ventral respiratory group (VRG)
The Apneustic and Pneumotaxic
Centers of the Pons
Paired nuclei that adjust output of
respiratory rhythmicity centers:
regulating respiratory rate and depth of
respiration
An Apneustic Center
Provides continuous stimulation to its DRG
center
Pneumotaxic Centers
Inhibit the apneustic centers
Promote passive or active exhalation
5 Sensory Modifiers of
Respiratory Center Activities
Chemoreceptors are sensitive to:
PCO2, PO2, or pH
of blood or cerebrospinal fluid
Baroreceptors in aortic or carotic
sinuses:
sensitive to changes in blood pressure
5 Sensory Modifiers of
Respiratory Center Activities
Stretch receptors:
respond to changes in lung volume
Irritating physical or chemical stimuli:
in nasal cavity, larynx, or bronchial tree
Other sensations including:
pain
changes in body temperature
abnormal visceral sensations
Chemoreceptor Reflexes
Respiratory centers are strongly influenced by
chemoreceptor input from:
* cranial nerve IX -The glossopharyngeal nerve:
from carotid bodies
stimulated by changes in blood pH or PO2
* cranial nerve X -The vagus nerve:
from aortic bodies
stimulated by changes in blood pH or PO2
* receptors that monitor cerebrospinal fluid Are on ventrolateral surface of medulla oblongata
Respond to PCO2 and pH of CSF
Chemoreceptor
Responses to PCO2
Figure 2327
Hypercapnia- An increase in arterial PCO2
Stimulates chemoreceptors in the medulla
oblongata:
to restore homeostasis
Hypoventilation-
A common cause of hypercapnia
Abnormally low respiration rate:
allows CO2 build-up in blood
Hyperventilation-Excessive ventilation
Results in abnormally low PCO2 (hypocapnia)
Stimulates chemoreceptors to decrease
respiratory rate
Baroreceptor Reflexes
Carotid and aortic baroreceptor
stimulation:
affects blood pressure and respiratory
centers
When blood pressure falls:
respiration increases
When blood pressure increases:
respiration decreases
Protective Reflexes
Triggered by receptors in epithelium of
respiratory tract when lungs are
exposed to:
toxic vapors
chemicals irritants
mechanical stimulation
Cause sneezing, coughing, and
laryngeal spasm
Apnea
A period of suspended respiration
Normally followed by explosive
exhalation to clear airways:
sneezing and coughing
Laryngeal Spasm
Temporarily closes airway:
to prevent foreign substances from
entering
The Cerebral Cortex and
Respiratory Centers
1. Strong emotions:
can stimulate respiratory centers in
hypothalamus
2. Temporarily closes airway:
to prevent foreign substances from entering
3. Anticipation of strenuous exercise:
can increase respiratory rate and cardiac
output
by sympathetic stimulation
KEY CONCEPTS
A basic pace of respiration is established
between respiratory centers in the pons and
medulla oblongata, and modified in response
to input from:
Chemoreceptors, baroreceptors, stretch receptors
In general, CO2 levels, rather than O2 levels,
are primary drivers of respiratory activity
Respiratory activity can be interrupted by
protective reflexes and adjusted by the
conscious control of respiratory muscles
Respiratory Centers and Reflex Controls
InteractionsbetweenVRG
andDRG:
establishbasicpaceand
depthofrespiration
Thepneumotaxiccenter:
modifiesthepace
Figure 2326
Peripheral
chemoreceptors regulating
respiration
Aortic bodies*
On aorta
Send sensory info to medulla
through X (vagus n)
Carotid bodies+
*
At fork of common carotid
artery
Send info mainly through IX
(glossopharyngeal n)
105
There are many diseases of the respiratory system,
including asthma, cystic fibrosis, COPD (chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease with chronic bronchitis
and/or emphysema) and epiglottitis
example:
normal
emphysema
106
you might want to think twice about
smoking.
107
How is oxygen picked
up, transported, and
released in the blood?
What is the structure and
function of hemoglobin?
Gas Pickup and Delivery
Blood plasma cant transport enough O2 or
CO2 to meet physiological needs
Red Blood Cells (RBCs)
Transport O2 to, and CO2 from, peripheral
tissues
Remove O2 and CO2 from plasma, allowing
gases to diffuse into blood
Oxygen Transport
O2 binds to iron ions in hemoglobin (Hb)
molecules:
in a reversible reaction
Each RBC has about 280 million Hb
molecules:
each binds 4 oxygen molecules -saturated
The percentage of heme units in a
hemoglobin molecule:
that contain bound oxygen
EnvironmentalFactorsAffectingHemoglobin
PO2ofblood, BloodpH,
Temperature
MetabolicactivitywithinRBCs
Oxyhemoglobin Saturation Curve
Figure 2320 (Navigator)
Oxyhemoglobin Saturation Curve
Is a graph relating the saturation of
hemoglobin to partial pressure of oxygen:
higher PO2 results in greater Hb saturation
Is a curve rather than a straight line:
because Hb changes shape each time a molecule
of O2 is bound
each O2 bound makes next O2 binding easier
allows Hb to bind O2 when O2 levels are low
Oxygen Reserves
O2 diffuses:
from peripheral capillaries (high PO2)
into interstitial fluid (low PO2)
Amount of O2 released depends on
interstitial PO2
Up to 3/4 may be reserved by RBCs
Carbon Monoxide
CO from burning fuels:
binds strongly to hemoglobin
takes the place of O2
can result in carbon monoxide poisoning
pH, Temperature, and
Hemoglobin Saturation
Figure 2321
The Oxyhemoglobin
Saturation Curve
Is standardized for normal blood (pH
7.4, 37C)
When pH drops or temperature rises:
more oxygen is released
curve shift to right
When pH rises or temperature drops:
less oxygen is released
curve shifts to left
The Bohr Effect
Is the effect of pH on hemoglobin
saturation curve
Caused by CO2:
CO2 diffuses into RBC
an enzyme, called carbonic anhydrase,
catalyzes reaction with H2O
produces carbonic acid (H2CO3)
Carbonic acid (H2CO3):
dissociates into hydrogen ion (H+) and
bicarbonate ion (HCO3)
Hydrogen ions diffuse out of RBC, lowering
pH
2,3-biphosphoglycerate (BPG)
RBCs generate ATP by glycolysis:
forming lactic acid and BPG
BPG directly affects O2 binding and
release:
more BPG, more oxygen released
BPG levels rise:
when pH increases
when stimulated by certain hormones
If BPG levels are too low:
hemoglobin will not release oxygen
Fetal and Adult Hemoglobin
Figure 2322
Fetal and Adult Hemoglobin
The structure of fetal hemoglobin:
differs from that of adult Hb
At the same PO2:
fetal Hb binds more O2 than adult Hb
which allows fetus to take O2 from
maternal blood
KEY CONCEPT
Hemoglobin in RBCs:
carries most blood oxygen
releases it in response to low O2 partial pressure
in surrounding plasma
If PO2 increases, hemoglobin binds oxygen
If PO2 decreases, hemoglobin releases
oxygen
At a given PO2:
hemoglobin will release additional oxygen
if pH decreases or temperature increases
How is carbon dioxide transported
in the blood?
Carbon Dioxide Transport
Figure 2323 (Navigator)
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Is generated as a byproduct of aerobic
metabolism (cellular respiration)
CO2 in the Blood Stream
May be:
converted to carbonic acid
bound to protein portion of hemoglobin
dissolved in plasma
Bicarbonate Ions
Move into plasma by an exchange
mechanism (the chloride shift) that takes in
Cl ions without using ATP
CO2 in the Blood Stream
70% is transported as carbonic acid
(H2CO3):
which dissociates into H+ and bicarbonate
(HCO3)
23% is bound to amino groups of globular
proteins in Hb molecule:
forming carbaminohemoglobin
7% is transported as CO2 dissolved in
plasma
KEY CONCEPT
CO2 travels in the bloodstream
primarily as bicarbonate ions, which
form through dissociation of carbonic
acid produced by carbonic anhydrase in
RBCs
Lesser amounts of CO2 are bound to
Hb or dissolved in plasma
Summary: Gas Transport
Figure 2324
