Product specification

Dimensioning and
tolerancing

It is impossible to make a perfect

component so when we design a
part we specify the acceptable range
of features that make-up the part.

Chapter 2 Suppliment
DIMENSIONS, TOLERANCES, AND SURFACES

Dimensions, Tolerances, and Related Attributes

Surfaces
ASME Y14.5 Form Geometry
Effect of Manufacturing Processes

IE 316 Manufacturing
Engineering I Processes

THE DESIGN PROCESS

Product Engineering
Design Process
Off-road bicycle that ...
1. Conceptualization
2. Synthesis
3. Analysis
4. Evaluation
5. Representation

Design
Process
How can this be
accomplished?

1. Clarification of the
task
2. Conceptual design
3. Embodiment design
Functional requirement -> Design
4. Detailed design

Steps 1 & 2 Select material and properties, begin geometric

modeling (needs creativity, sketch is sufficient)
3
mathematical, engineering analysis
4
simulation, cost, physical model
5
formal drawing or modeling

DESIGN REPRESENTATION
Design

Engineering
Representation

Manufacturing

Verbal
Sketch
Multi-view orthographic drawing
(drafting)
CAD drafting
CAD 3D & surface model
Solid model
Feature based design
Requirement of the representation method
precisely convey the design concept
easy to use

A FREE-HAND SKETCH
Orthographic Projection

A FORMAL 3-VIEW DRAWING

0.9444"

4holes1/4"dia
around2"dia,first
holeat45

2.000 0.001

DESIGN DRAFTING
Y
top

Profile plane
e

g
a

Horizontal I I
h
j

side

front

Drafting in the third angle

III

IV

Frontal plane

Third angle projection

INTERPRETING A DRAWING

DESIGN DRAFTING

Partial view

2.0000.001

A-A
A

Cut off view and auxiliary view

Provide more local details

DIMENSIONING

Requirements
1. Unambiguous

Incomplete
dimensioning

2. Completeness
3. No redundancy
0.83 '

0.98 '

1.22 '

3.03 '

1.72 '

0.86 '

1.22 '

0.83 '
3.03 '

Adequate dimensioning

Redundant dimensioning

TOLERANCE

Dimensional tolerance conventional

Geometric
tolerance
modern
nominal dimension
1.00 +
- 0.05

means a range 0.95 - 1.05

tolerance

unilateral
bilateral

+ 0.10
0.95 - 0.00
1.00 +
- 0.05

+ 0.00
1.05 - 0.10

TOLERANCE STACKING
1. Check that the tolerance & dimension specifications are
reasonable - for assembly.
2. Check there is no over or under specification.
"TOLERANCE IS ALWAYS ADDITIVE" why?

0.80 ' 0.01

1.20 ' 0.01

1.00 ' 0.01

?
What is the expected dimension and tolerances?
d = 0.80 +1.00 + 1.20 = 3.00
t = (0.01 + 0.01 + 0.01) = 0.03

TOLERANCE STACKING (ii)

0.80 ' 0.01

1.20 ' 0.01

3.00 ' 0.01

What is the expected dimension and tolerances?

d = 3.00 - 0.80 - 1.20 = 1.00
t = (0.01 + 0.01 + 0.01) = 0.03

TOLERANCE STACKING (iii)

x
0.80 ' 0.01

1.20 ' 0.01

3.00 ' 0.01

Maximum x length = 3.01 - 0.79 - 1.19 = 1.03

Minimum x length = 2.99 - 0.81 - 1.21 = 0.97
Therefore x = 1.00 0.03

TOLERANCE GRAPH
d,t B

d,t

d,t
C
d,t

G(N,d,t)
N: a set of reference lines, sequenced nodes
d: a set of dimensions, arcs
t: a set of tolerances, arcs
d
t

ij
ij

: dimension between references i & j

: tolerance between references i & j
Reference i is in front of reference j in the sequence.

EXAMPLE TOLERANCE GRAPH

d,t B

d,t

d,t
d,t

dDE = d DA + d AE = d AD + d AE
= (d AB + d BC + d CD) + d AE
t DE = t AB + t BC + tCD + t AE

different properties
between d & t

OVER SPECIFICATION
If one or more cycles can be detected in the graph, we say
that the dimension and tolerance are over specified.

A
d1,t1

d2,t2

d2

d3
Redundant dimension

d3,t3
A

d1

t1

t2

t3
Over constraining tolerance
(impossible to satisfy) why?

UNDER SPECIFICATION
When one or more nodes are disconnected from the graph, the
dimension or tolerance is under specified.

d1

d2

d3

E
C

Dis disconnected from the

rest of the graph.
No way to find

and dDE
dBC

PROPERLY TOLERANCED

d,t B

d,t

d,t
d,t

dDE = d DA + d AE = d AD + d AE
= (d AB + d BC + d CD) + d AE
t DE = t AB + t BC + tCD + t AE

TOLERANCE ANALYSIS
For two or three dimensional tolerance analysis:
i. Only dimensional tolerance
Do one dimension at a time.
Decompose into X,Y,Z, three one dimensional problems.
ii. with geometric tolerance
? Don't have a good solution yet. Use simulation?

diameter & tolerance

true position

A circular tolerance zone, the size is influenced

by the diameter of the hole. The shape of the
hole is also defined by a geometric tolerance.

3-D GEOMETRIC TOLERANCE

PROBLEMS

datum
surface

datum surface
t

Reference
frame
perpendicularity

TOLERANCE ASSIGNMENT
Tolerance is money
Specify as large a tolerance as possible as long as functional
and assembly requirements can be satisfied.
(ref. Tuguchi, ElSayed, Hsiang, Quality Engineering in
Production Systems, McGraw Hill, 1989.)

function

Qualit y
Cost

cost

+t
-t

Tolerance value

d (nominal dimension)

Quality cost

REASON OF HAVING TOLERANCE

No manufacturing process is
perfect.
Nominal dimension (the "d"
value) can not be achieved
exactly.
Without tolerance we lose the
control and as a consequence
cause functional or assembly

EFFECTS OF TOLERANCE (I)

1. Functional constraints
e.g.
flow rate

dt
Diameter of the tube affects the flow. What is the allowed
flow rate variation (tolerance)?

EFFECTS OF TOLERANCE (II)

2. Assembly constraints
e.g. peg-in-a-hole

dp
dh

How to maintain the

clearance?

Compound fitting
The dimension of
each segment
affects others.

RELATION BETWEEN
PRODUCT & PROCESS
TOLERANCES

A
0.01 tolerances
Design specifications

Setup
locators
0.005

0.005
0.005

Process tolerance

Machine uses the locators as

the reference. The distances
from the machine coordinate
system to the locators are
known.
The machining tolerance is
measured from the locators.
In order to achieve the 0.01
tolerances, the process
tolerance must be 0.005 or
better.
When multiple setups are
used, the setup error need to
be taken into consideration.

TOLERANCE CHARTING
A method to allocate process tolerance and verify that the
process sequence and machine selection can satisfy the design
tolerance.
stock
boundary
0.01

0.01
0.01

blue print

Dim

tol

1.0
1.0
3.0

0.01
0.01
0.01

Not shown are

process tolerance
assignment and
balance

Op code

Operation
sequence

10 lathe
10 lathe
20 lathe
20 lathe

10
12
20
22

produced tolerances:
process tol of 10 + process tol of 12
process tol of 20 + process tol 22
process tol of 22 + setup tol

PROBLEMS WITH DIMENSIONAL

TOLERANCE ALONE
As designed:
1.000.001
6.000.001

As manufactured:
1.0 0 1

Will you accept the part

at right?

1.0 0 1

Problem is the control of

straightness.
How to eliminate the
ambiguity?

6.0 0

1.0 0 1

GEOMETRIC TOLERANCES
ANSI Y14.5M-1977 GD&T (ISO 1101, geometric tolerancing;
ISO 5458 positional tolerancing; ISO 5459 datums;
and others), ASME Y14.5 - 1994
FORM

ORIENTATION

straightness
flatness

perpendicularity
Squareness
angularity

Circularity

parallelism

roundness

cylindricity

LOCATION
RUNOUT
circular runout
total runout
PROFILE
profile
profile of a line

concentricity
true position
symmetry

DATUM &
FEATURE CONTROL FRAME
Datum: a reference plane, point, line, axis where usually a plane
where you can base your measurement.
A

Symbol:

Even a hole pattern can be used as datum.

Feature: specific component portions of a part and may include
one or more surfaces such as holes, faces, screw threads,
profiles, or slots.
Feature Control Frame:
datum
//
symbol

0.005 M A
modifier
tolerance value

MODIFIERS
M Maximum material condition
MMC
assembly
Regardless of feature size RFS (implied unless specified)
L Least material condition
LMC
less frequently used
P Projected tolerance zone
maintain critical
O Diametrical tolerance zone
wall thickness or
T Tangent plane
critical location of
features.
F Free state

MMC, RFS, LMC

MMC, RFS
RFS

SOME TERMS
MMC : Maximum Material Condition
Smallest hole or largest peg (more material left on the part)
LMC : Least Material Condition
Largest hole or smallest peg (less material left on the part)
Virtual condition:
Collective effect of all tolerances specified on a feature.
Datum target points:
Specify on the drawing exactly where the datum contact
points should be located. Three for primary datum, two for
secondary datum and one or tertiary datum.

DATUM REFERENCE FRAME

T
e
tr
ia
r
y

Prim ary

Secondary

Three perfect planes used to

locate the imperfect part.
a. Three point contact on the
primary plane
b. two point contact on the
secondary plane
c. one point contact on the
tertiary plane

O 0.001
B

Secondary

primary
M A

B C

Tertiary

STRAIGHTNESS
Tolerance zone between two straightness lines.
0.001

Value must be smaller

than the size tolerance.

1.0000.002
'
Measurederror 0.001

0.001
0.001
1.0000.002
'
Design

Meaning

Dimensions and Tolerances

In addition to mechanical and
physical properties, other factors
that determine the performance of a
manufactured product include:
Dimensions - linear or angular sizes of a
component specified on the part
drawing
Tolerances- allowable variations from
the specified part dimensions that are
permitted in manufacturing

IE 316 Manufacturing
Engineering I Processes

Surfaces
Nominal surface - intended surface contour
of part, defined by lines in the engineering
drawing
The nominal surfaces appear as absolutely
straight lines, ideal circles, round holes, and other
edges and surfaces that are geometrically perfect

Actual surfaces of a part are determined by

the manufacturing processes used to make it
The variety of manufacturing processes result in
wide variations in surface characteristics

IE 316 Manufacturing
Engineering I Processes

Why Surfaces are Important

Aesthetic reasons
Surfaces affect safety
Friction and wear depend on surface
characteristics
Surfaces affect mechanical and physical
properties
Assembly of parts is affected by their
surfaces
Smooth surfaces make better electrical
contacts
IE 316 Manufacturing
Engineering I Processes

Surface Technology
Concerned with:
Defining the characteristics of a surface
Surface texture
Surface integrity
Relationship between manufacturing
processes and characteristics of
resulting surface

IE 316 Manufacturing
Engineering I Processes

Figure 5.2 A magnified crosssection of a typical metallic part

surface
IE 316 Manufacturing
Engineering I Processes

Surface Texture
The topography and geometric
features of the surface
When highly magnified, the surface
is anything but straight and smooth.
It has roughness, waviness, and flaws
It also possesses a pattern and/or
direction resulting from the
mechanical process that produced it
IE 316 Manufacturing
Engineering I Processes

Surface Integrity
Concerned with the definition, specification, and
control of the surface layers of a material (most
commonly metals) in manufacturing and
subsequent performance in service
Manufacturing processes involve energy which
alters the part surface
The altered layer may result from work
hardening (mechanical energy), or heating
(thermal energy), chemical treatment, or even
electrical energy
Surface integrity includes surface texture as
well as the altered layer beneath
IE 316 Manufacturing
Engineering I Processes

Surface Texture
Repetitive and/or random deviations from
the nominal surface of an object

Figure 5.3 Surface texture features

IE 316 Manufacturing
Engineering I Processes

Four Elements of Surface

Texture
1. Roughness - small, finelyspaced
deviations from nominal surface
determined by material
characteristics and process that
formed the surface
2. Waviness - deviations of much larger
spacing; they occur due to work
deflection, vibration, heat treatment,
and similar factors
Roughness is superimposed on

IE 316 Manufacturing
Engineering I Processes

3. Lay predominant
direction or
pattern of the
surface texture

Figure 5.4 Possible

lays of a surface
IE 316 Manufacturing
Engineering I Processes

4. Flaws - irregularities that occur

occasionally on the surface
Includes cracks, scratches, inclusions,
and similar defects in the surface
Although some flaws relate to surface
texture, they also affect surface
integrity

IE 316 Manufacturing
Engineering I Processes

Surface Roughness and Surface

Finish
Surface roughness - a measurable
characteristic based on roughness
deviations
Surface finish - a more subjective term
denoting smoothness and general
quality of a surface
In popular usage, surface finish is
often used as a synonym for surface
roughness
Both terms are within the scope of
IE 316 Manufacturing
Engineering I Processes

Surface Roughness
Average of vertical deviations from
nominal surface over a specified
surface length

Figure 5.5 Deviations from nominal surface used in

the two definitions of surface roughness
IE 316 Manufacturing
Engineering I Processes

Surface Roughness Equation

Arithmetic average (AA) is generally used,
based on absolute values of deviations, and
is referred to as average roughness
Ra

Lm

y
dx
Lm

where Ra = average roughness; y = vertical

deviation from nominal surface (absolute
value); and Lm = specified distance over
which the surface deviations are measured
IE 316 Manufacturing
Engineering I Processes

An Alternative Surface Roughness

Equation
Approximation of previous equation is
perhaps easier to comprehend:
n

yi
Ra
i 1 n

where Ra has the same meaning as above;

yi = vertical deviations (absolute value)
identified by subscript i; and n = number
of deviations included in Lm
IE 316 Manufacturing
Engineering I Processes

Cutoff Length
A problem with the Ra computation is that
waviness may get included
To deal with this problem, a parameter called
the cutoff length is used as a filter to
separate waviness from roughness deviations
Cutoff length is a sampling distance along the
surface. A sampling distance shorter than the
waviness width eliminates waviness
deviations and only includes roughness
deviations
IE 316 Manufacturing
Engineering I Processes

Figure 5.6 Surface texture symbols in engineering

drawings:
(a) the symbol, and (b) symbol with identification labels
Values of Ra are given in microinches; units for other
measures are given in inches
Designers do not always specify all of the parameters on
engineering drawings
IE 316 Manufacturing
Engineering I Processes

TRUE POSITION
Tolerance zone
0.022

Dimensional
tolerance
1.000.01
1.20
0.01
O.800.02
O0.01M A B

Tolerance zone
0.01dia

True position
tolerance
1.00
B

Hole center tolerance zone

1.20

HOLE TOLERANCE ZONE

Tolerance zone for dimensional toleranced
hole is not a circle. This causes some assembly
problems.

For a hole using true position tolerance

the tolerance zone is a circular zone.

TOLERANCE VALUE MODIFICATION

O1.000.02
O0.01M A B

Produced
True Pos tol
1.00
M
L
S
hole size
0.97
out of diametric
B
tolerance
1.20
MMC
A
0.98 0.01
0.05
0.01
0.99 0.02
0.04
0.01
1.00 0.03
0.03
0.01
The default modifier for
1.01 0.04
0.02
0.01
true position is MMC.
LMC
1.02 0.05
0.01
0.01
1.03
out of diametric
tolerance
For M the allowable tolerance = specified
tolerance + (produced hole
size - MMC hole size)

MMC HOLE
LMC hole

MMC hole
hole axis tolerance zone

MMC peg will fit in the hole ,

axis must be in the tolerance zone

Given the same peg (MMC peg), when the produced hole
size is greater than the MMC hole, the hole axis true
position tolerance zone can be enlarged by the amount of
difference between the produced hole size and the MMC
hole size.

PROJECTED TOLERANCE ZONE

Applied for threaded holes or press fit holes to ensure interchangeability

between parts. The height of the projected tolerance zone is the thickness
of the mating part.
.375 -16UNC -2B
O.010M A B C
.250p
0.01
0.25

Projected
zone

Produced part

tolerance

Surface Integrity
Surface texture alone does not completely
describe a surface
There may be metallurgical changes in the
altered layer beneath the surface that can
have a significant effect on a material's
mechanical properties
Surface integrity is the study and control of
this subsurface layer and the changes in it that
occur during processing which may influence
the performance of the finished part or product
IE 316 Manufacturing
Engineering I Processes

Surface Changes Caused by

Processing
Surface changes are caused by the
application of various forms of energy
during processing
Example: Mechanical energy is the most
common form in manufacturing. Processes
include metal forming (e.g., forging,
extrusion), pressworking, and machining
Although primary function is to change
geometry of workpart, mechanical energy can
also cause residual stresses, work hardening,
and cracks in the surface layers
IE 316 Manufacturing
Engineering I Processes

Surface Changes Caused by

Mechanical Energy
Residual stresses in subsurface layer
Cracks microscopic and
macroscopic
Laps, folds, or seams
Voids or inclusions introduced
mechanically
Hardness variations (e.g., work
hardening)
IE 316 Manufacturing
Engineering I Processes

Surface Changes Caused by

Thermal Energy
Metallurgical changes
(recrystallization, grain size changes,
phase changes at surface)
Redeposited or resolidified material
(e.g., welding or casting)
Heataffected zone in welding
(includes some of the metallurgical
changes listed above)
Hardness changes
IE 316 Manufacturing
Engineering I Processes

Surface Changes Caused by

Chemical Energy
Intergranular attack
Chemical contamination
Absorption of certain elements such
as H and Cl in metal surface
Corrosion, pitting, and etching
Dissolving of microconstituents
Alloy depletion and resulting
hardness changes
IE 316 Manufacturing
Engineering I Processes

Surface Changes Caused by

Electrical Energy
Changes in conductivity and/or
magnetism
Craters resulting from short circuits
during certain electrical processing
techniques

IE 316 Manufacturing
Engineering I Processes

Tolerances and Manufacturing

Processes
Some manufacturing processes are
inherently more accurate than others
Examples:
Most machining processes are quite
accurate, capable of tolerances = 0.05
mm ( 0.002 in.) or better
Sand castings are generally inaccurate,
and tolerances of 10 to 20 times those
used for machined parts must be
specified
IE 316 Manufacturing
Engineering I Processes

Surfaces and Manufacturing

Processes
Some processes are inherently
capable of producing better surfaces
than others
In general, processing cost increases
with improvement in surface finish
because additional operations and more
time are usually required to obtain
increasingly better surfaces
Processes noted for providing superior
finishes include honing, lapping,
IE 316 Manufacturing
polishing,
and superfinishing
Engineering
I Processes