GuideBook in

Electronics
Engineering

By: Ronnie Villamor

Submitted by :
Bernabe, Aileen Ann M.

Submitted to:
Engr. Mark Macawile
 Electricity and Magnetism
Electric Current- the directional motion of
electrons
Electrostatics- deals with stationary charged
particles
Magnetism- effects of moving electrons
 Atomic Structure

Electrons are present in every material and its

motions are usually illustrated together with
protons and neutrons within an atomic structure.
Joseph John Thomson (1856-1940)- British
physicist who discovered the electron in 1897,
which he initially called corpuscles, meaning a
living cell.
 Elementary Particles

Electrons- are negatively charged particles.

Protons- are positively charged particles.
Neutrons- are electrically neutral (no charge).
 Structure of Matter

The elementary particles are basic form of matter,

and as they combine they form another matter,
the atom; and as atoms combine, forms yet
another different matter.
 Matter- anything in the universe that has mass
occupies space, and is convertible to energy.
Atom- a substance consisting of the basic
particles, electrons, protons, and neutrons. As
atoms combine they form either element or a
compound.
Element- substance consisting of atoms of only
one kind. This is considered as the elementary
(irreducible) chemical identity of materials.
 Compound- a combination of two or more
different atoms or elements. Most of the
insulators are compound.
Molecule- the smallest part of a compound or
material that retains all the properties of the
compound.
Atomic Number- represents the number of
protons in the nucleus of an atom, which in a
neutral atom equals the number of electrons
outside the nucleus. This number determines
the place of the element in the periodic table of
elements.
 Atomic Mass- mass of the atom, which
represents the sum of protons and neutrons.
Electron has a relatively very small mass and
therefore neglected.
 Bohr Atomic Model
A simplified presentation of the elementary
particles in the atom. In this model, electrons
travel in defined circular orbits around the
nucleus. The orbits are labelled by an integer,
the quantum number n. Electrons can jump from
one orbit to another by emitting or absorbing
energy.
 Valence shell- is the outer most shell or the last
shell. This shell or orbit is filled with the
remaining electrons.
Valence electron (s)- electron (s) that occupies
the valence shell or the last shell.
Free electrons- are originally valence electrons.
As they gain enough energy they escape from
the valence shell and become free.
 Electrical Classification of
material
The number of valence electrons is a common
indication that tells us the electrical
characteristics of a material.
 Conductor- material with less than four valence
electrons. Conductors allow electrical current to
flow easily because they have more free
electrons.
Insulator- material with more than four valence
electrons. Insulators will not allow electrical
current to flow easily because they have very
few or even no free electrons.
Semiconductor- with exactly four valence
electrons. Semiconductors have electrical
characteristics in between conductors and
insulators.
 Energy Bands
Energy Gap- the energy difference between the
valence band and conduction band. Its unit is the
electron volt (eV).
Valence band- the region difference between the
valence shell and valence electrons are
occupying. It is the highest energy level before
conduction band.
Conduction band- the region where free electrons
are said to be present. Electrons at this band have
a higher energy level than those electrons at the
valence band.
 Forbidden band- the region in an atom where no
electrons exist. It is in between two allowed
bands, such as between valence and conduction
bands.

Free electrons are the charged particle moving

during conduction of electricity.
Electron volt is a unit of energy gained by an
electron passing from a point of low potential to
a point one volt higher in potential.
1eV=1.6 x10-19 Joule
 Electric Charge (Q)
Is a fundamental property of matter and is
influenced by elementary particles such as
electrons and protons.
There are two kinds of charges as suggested by
US scientist Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790),
positive charge (carried by protons), and
negative charge (carried by electrons). The unit
of electric charge is Coulomb (C). Named after
the French physicist, Charles Augustin de
Coulomb (1736-1806).
 -1 Coulomb = 6.242x1018 electrons
Electron Charge = -1.602 x 10-19C
Proton Charge = +1.602 x 10-19C

Conservation of Charge: The total or net electric

charge in an isolated system always remains
constant.
Conservation of Charge-Energy: Electric charge
is neither created nor destroyed but is
transferred from one body to another.
 Electric Field and Electric
Force
When the body is electrically charged, it is said to
have electric field in its surroundings. This field
interacts with other charged bodies and will
produce an electric force that may cause them
to move.
Electric Field- is the area or region surrounding
an electrically charged particle or body.
Electric Force- the force produced due to the
electric field of a charged particle or body.
 Electrical Potential
The fact that charged tend to move charged
particles, it is said to have a capacity to do work
or it has a potential to do work. This is also called
electrical potential energy.
Electrical Potential- the ability of a charged body
to do work on charged particles such as
electrons.
Electrical Potential Difference- the difference
between the capacities (potentials) of two
charges to do work.
 Volt (V)- the unit of potential difference. A
potential of one Volt (1V) has the capacity to do
one Joule (1J) of work in moving one Coulomb
(1C) of charge. Named after the Italian physicist,
Alessandro Volta (1745-1827) in 1881.
Voltage- another name of potential difference
expressed in Volts.
Electromotive Force (emf)- The electrical force
that moves the charged particles such as
electrons (electron moving force). The term emf
is used interchangeably with potential difference
and voltage.
When an emf is applied into a material, its charged
partices (such as electrons) will be disturbed and
consequently, will move in a direction
determined by polarity of the applied emf.
 Electric Current
Current in gases and liquids, generally
consists of a flow of positive ions in one direction
together with a flow of negative ions in the
opposite direction.
Current in Solids such as wires, consists of the
flow of electrons, and is a measure of the
quantity of charge passing any point of the wire
per unit of time.
.
 Ampere (A)- the unit of electric current. Current
of one Ampere (1A) is equal to ine Coulomb (1C)
of charge flows a given point in one second (1s).
Named in honor to the French physicist and
mathematicican, Andre M. Ampere (1775-
1836).
Current Density (J)- the current per unit cross-
sectional area.
Direct Current- charges flow in one direction
only.
 Alternating Current- the motion of electric
charges is periodically reversed.
Conventional Current- the assumption, which
considered the flow of charge from positive to
negative. This is opposite to the actual charge
flow, which is from negative to positive.
Electrostatics- deals with phenomena due to
attractions or repulsions of electric charges that
are not moving (static).
 ELECTRIC FIELD FORCE (F)
-two static charges, (Q1 & Q2) will experience a
force F determined by coulombs law.

According to Charles-Augustin de Coulomb,

(1736-1806) French physicist, the electric force
for charges at rest has the following properties:
 The size of the force of attraction or repulsion
between two charges is directly proportional to the
value of each charge. (Sometimes called Coulombs
first law of electrostatics)
The size of the force varies inversely as the square
of the distance between the two charges.
(Sometimes called Coulombs second law of
electrostatics)
The attraction or repulsion acts along the line
between the two charges.
Like charges repel each other, unlike charges attract.
Thus, two negative charges repel one another, while
a positive charge attracts negative charge.
 QUICK FACTS
When two or more charges exert forces
simultaneously on another charge, the total
force acting on that charge is the vector sum of
the individual forces exerted by each charge.
This is known as principle of superposition.
Electric charges should be at rest during the
calculation of forces. When the charges are in
motion the forces are different.
 In using Coulombs law there should be no other
matter in between charges, the matter will cause
an erroneous result.
The force F will cause another charged particle
to move and is therefore can be considered as
electromotive force.
The force F is a vector quantity.
ELECTRIC FIELD (E) & FIELD
FORCE (F)
The region of space around an electrically
charged body. This electric field exerts a force on
another charged body and is usually illustrated by
imaginary lines called electric field lines of
force or simply lines of force. The strength of an
electric field E at any point may be defined as the
electric force F exerted per unit positive electric
charge Q at that point, or simply
 DETERMINATION OF
ELECTRIC FIELD
To detect the presence of electric field at a
particular region, another charged body, usually
test charge (q) is placed and if the test charge
experiences a force of electrical origin, then an
electric field is present at that region.
 QUICK FACTS
Every electrically charged body will produce an
electric field. To visualize this field it is
represented by imaginary lines called the
electric field lines of force or lines of force or
simply field lines.
Electric field at any point in the region is directly
proportional to the charge and inversely to the
square of the distance. When charge is static
(not moving) the field produced is known as
electrostatic field.
 Electric field is a vector quantity but not a single
vector, it is an infinite set of vector quantities called
vector field.
The direction of field lines depends on the charge,
it is directed outward from a positive charge and
inward to a negative charge.
The number of field lines or line density is directly
proportional to the electric field, more lines should
be drawn for strong fields and less for weak fields.
Field lines never intersect and in a uniform field,
field lines are straight, parallel, and uniformly or
equally spaced.
 Electric field will bring about a force to any other
charged body or particle within its vicinity. The
force direction is the same as with the direction
of field lines.
The equations above are derived from
Coulombs Law and are therefore applicable
only directly to point charges. For distributed
charges such as charges in a long wire or a
plane, Gausss Law is more appropriate.
 GAUSSS LAW
-Formulated by Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855),
a German mathematician.

Provide a means in determining the electric field or

electric field intensity as produced by charge
(point or distributed). Since Coulombs Law is
more useful in distributed charges specially if it is
symmetrically distributed in a closed system,
such as charges in a long wire or in a relatively
infinite plane.
Gausss law can be stated as: The
summation of the normal component of
the electric field displacement E over any
closed surface is directly proportional to
electric charge within the surface.
Where:
- is the electric field component
perpendicular or normal to a small element area
A
A is the small element area where the field
lines pass
Q is the charge producing the field

- is the permittivity of free space (8.854 x10 -

12C2*m-2)
In Gausss Law equation, the quantity is called the
Gaussian sum and is also known as the
electric flux through the surface and is denoted
by .
EA=
From this, Gausss law can also be stated as:
For any closed system, the total electric flux
passing through that surface is directly
proportional to the charge inside the system.
Mathematically,
=
 ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY

D= D=

Where:
D is the flux density in Coulomb per meter
is the electric flux in Coulomb
A is the area perpendicular to the flux in m 2
is the permittivity of free space
is the relative permittivity, = 1 (for free space)
 Quick Facts
Electric field intensity, E produced by a point
charge can be found by Coulombs law.
Electric field intensity, E produced by a
distributed charge can be found by Gausss law.
The area to be considered in using Gausss law
should be the one where the electric field is
perpendicular. This is called the Gaussian
surface.
 In Gausss law the electric field E is parallel to
the surface at every point, the is said to be zero.
The electric lines of force in an electric field is
also called electric flux.
Electric flux density is the number of field lines
that crosses a unit area or the lines of force per
unit area.
 ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL
ENERGY (U)
The electrical potential energy U of a charge Q1 with
respect to another charge Q0 at a distance r can be
calculated using:

U=

Where U has a unit of Joules (J);

Joule, James Prescott (1818-1889), British
Physicist.
 ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL
DIFFERENCE (V)
The amount of work needed to take a 1 Coulomb
charge from one point to another, or the
potential energy per unit charge. Its unit is Volt,
named after the Italian physicist, Alessandro
Volta (1745-1827)

V=
The electrostatic potential, V due to a charge Q
at any distance r can be found by:

V= V=
In terms of electric field E:
V=Er E=

Potential difference between two points in a

uniform E field.
VAB = VA-VB =

Where ra and rb are the distances of points A and B

from Q.
 MAGNETISM
-Generally, magnetism is the property of a device
or material to attract bodies of iron and other
magnetic materials or magnets.
Electromagnetism- Magnetism due to electric
charges that are moving, such as the flow of
electric current.
Electromagnetic Induction- The production of
electric current, potential or voltage due to
magnetism.
 MAGNETIC FIELD (B)
(DUE TO A MOVING
ELECTRIC CHARGE)
Magnetic field B is present whenever a charge Q
moves, such as a point charge or an electric
current. Comparing it from electric field E,
electric field is present whenever there is a
charge body moving or not.
 Magnetic field B is also a vector quantity with a
magnitude that is directly proportional to the
source charge Q, and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance r.

B= (Tesla) T
Where:
-is the permeability of free space; 4 x 10-7
T*m/A
V is the velocity of the charge Q in m/s.
is the angle between the direction of v and the
point P, the direction of v is into the plane
(towards the page of this book) if Q is positive
and away the plane (towards you) if Q is
negative.
 Note that this is similar to the magnitude of
electric field E, one difference is that B is also a
function of the velocity v of the source charge Q.
The direction of the magnetic field also differs
from electric field, they are circling around the
source charge Q, and in fact, magnetic field and
electric field are perpendicular to each other at
every point P.
It should be noted further that in the figure
above, the direction of B is also perpendicular to
the direction of motion v of the source charge Q.
This can be imagined using the right-hand rule.
Using your right hand, direct your thumb to the
direction of motion v, in this case towards the
plane (towards the page), then the curled fingers
is the direction of B.
 MAGNETIC FORCE (F)
(DUE TO AN ELECTRIC
CHARGE)
The presence of magnetic field B will cause a
magnetic force F on other moving charges q.
Magnetic force F is also a vector quantity, with a
magnitude given by the equation below. Its
direction is always perpendicular to the
containing B and v. T
F=
Magnetic force F exerted to the moving q due to
the presence of magnetic field B.
Its direction is determined by using right-hand-
thread rule. Simply turn v towards B through
the smaller angle and imagine how a right-hand-
thread screw would advance if turned in the
same direction with v, that direction is the
direction of the force F.
 THE ATOMIC THEORY OF
MAGNETISM
Magnetism is the effect of moving charged particles
such as the motion of electrons in an atom.
In atoms of most elements, the magnetic forces
produced by its charged particles, electrons and protons
cancel each other and produce a very small or zero net
magnetic force. They are called nonmagnetic
materials.
The common elements whose magnetic forces do not
cancel completely and is externally significant are iron,
nickel, and cobalt, and are called magnetic
materials.
 In iron, nickel, and cobalt, the molecules arrange
themselves into magnetic entities called
domains.
Domains are completely magnetized.
Groups of domains form into crystals, which is
either magnetic or non-magnetic, depending on
the arrangement or alignment of the domains.
DOMAINS THREE DIRECTIONS
OF MAGNETIZATION
-When iron, nickel, or cobalt are exposed to a magnetic field
of force, or magnetizing force (H), its domains will align in
three possible directions.
1.Easy is the domains direction of alignment when exposed
to a weak magnetic field of force.
2.Semi-Hard is the domains direction of alignment when
exposed to a stronger magnetic field of force.
3.Hard is t he domains direction of alignment when
exposed to a very strong magnetic field of force, which
causes saturation.
Saturation is a situation where any increase in the
amount of the magnetizing force will have very little
magnetic effect of the material.
Magnetic field (B) The space around a magnetic pole or
magnetized body. The field causes other materials to
become magnetized or at least exerts a force on moving
electric charge.
Magnetic Field or Force or Magnetizing Force (H) The
intensity of the magnetic field that causes a material to
become magnetized, or that causes the magnetic
domains in a material to align and become magnetized.
Also called Magnetic Field Intensity, Field Intensity,
Magnetic Intensity, or Magnetic Field Strength.
 PERMEABILITY () OF
MATERIALS
In the absence of B-H curve of a material, its
ability to accept, allow or set up a magnetic field
is described by a numerical value called
permeability, of the material, which the ratio of
the magnetic field B to the magnetizing force H.
= Henry/meter
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY (r) - is the ratio of the
permeability of material to the permeability of
vacuum or air.
r =

where: - permeability of vacuum or air, also called

free space permeability, equals to 4 x 10 -7 H/m.
 MAGNETIC MATERIALS
COMPARISON
Ferromagnetic & Paramagnetic Diamagnetic
Ferrimagnetic
Very strong attractive Very low attractive effect Very low repellent effect
effect (domains easily (domains align with the (domains turn away with
align with the magnetizing force H) the magnetizing force H)
magnetizing force H)
With relative permeability With relative permeability With relative permeability
(r) very much greater (r) slightly greater than (r) slightly less than 1
than 1 1
Common Materials: Common Materials: Common Materials:
Iron, nickel, or cobalt, Aluminium, chromium, Bismuth, antimony,
ALNICO, Permalloys, manganese, platinum copper, silver, gold, zinc
Ferrites, and magnetic and carbon and mercury
oxides
 FERROMAGNETIC and
FERRIMAGNETIC
Ferromagnetic Ferrimagnetic

In Ferromagnetism all domains align in In Ferrimagnetism some domain are

parallel anti-parallel

Common materials are mostly Common materials are mostly

conductors; iron, nickel, or cobalt, insulators; Ferrites, and other
ALNICO, Perm alloys, and steel. magnetic oxides that are used as core
Including the powered iron core used material in coils operating at
in some radio frequency coil. microwave frequency.
 TYPES OF MAGNETS
-Magnets are made of ferromagnetic materials
Natural Magnets A natural material that exhibits
permanent magnetism, such as lodestone or
magnetite.
Artificial Magnets produce by exposing or subjecting
a magnetic material into a magnetizing force. There
are two types of magnets.
1. Permanent artificial magnets or permanent magnets
2. Temporary artificial magnets or temporary magnets
 Types of Artificial Magnets
(Some Properties)
PERMANENT MAGNET TEMPORARY MAGNET
Made of Hard Magnetic Material Made of Soft magnetic material
Hard to demagnetized requires higher coercive force Easy to demagnitized requires lower coercive force

With high retentivity With low retentivity

With higher residual magnetism With lower residual magnetism
With higher hysteresis With lower hysteresis
Magnetic domain alignment is well held even if the magnetizing Magnetic domains are easily rolled back when the magnetizing
force is removed. They wont easily roll back. force is removed.

Most common material: Most common material:

ALNICO- a combination of Aluminum, Nickel, & Cobalt, with Perm alloys (perm from permeable) a combination of iron, nickel
small amounts of one or more of the elements copper, iron, and and small quantities of other metals.
titanium added.
Other materials: cobalt steel, nickel-aluminum steels, & other Other materials: soft iron, pure iron & iron oxides (such as
special steels hardened steel or cast iron. Also Ticonal (Titanium, manganese ferrite). Insulators are used for magnetic cores in
cobalt, nickel and aluminium). many applications, theses are called ferrite cores or ferrites.
Hipernik (an alloy of 50 percent nickel)
Used in: meters, headphones, loud speakers, radar transmitting Used in: transformers, chokes, relays, & circuit breakers
tubes.
Quick Facts:
When a ferromagnetic material is completely
demagnetized, it means that there is no magnetic
field (B = 0) within its surroundings.
When a magnetizing force H is applied into a
demagnetized ferromagnetic material, magnetic
field or flux density B rises. As H is continuously
increased, B also increases until the material
saturates.
When saturation is reached, further increase of H
will have very little increase in B. Practically this is
the point of maximum flux density or magnetic
field.
 From saturation, when the magnetizing force is
decreased until H = 0, flux density B also decreases
but it will not drop to zero as H drops to zero. There
will be some magnetic field left even if the
magnetizing force is zero.
The magnetic field or flux density B left after the
removal of the magnetizing force (H=0) is called
remanence or residual magnetism.
To completely demagnetize the material, the
residual magnetism must be counteracted by
opposite magnetizing force. The amount of force
that can bring residual magnetism to zero is called
coercive force.
 A material with higher residual magnetism is
said to have good retentivity or remanence, the
ability to retain magnetism when magnetizing
force is removed.
Permanent magnets are constructed from
materials with good retentivity, while temporary
magnets, with low retentivity.
 HYSTERESIS LOOP
-When a ferromagnetic material is subjected to
magnetizing force created by an alternating
current, the B-H curve when plotted will form a
close loop, called hysteresis loop.
 ELECTROMAGNETISM
(MAGNETIC FIELD AND MAGNETIC
FORCE DUE TO THE FLOW OF
ELECTRIC CURRENT)
Magnetic Field and Force of a Long Straight
Conductor
The magnetic field B at a distance r from a long
straight conductor carrying a current I, can be
calculated using the equation below, the force F
equation is also shown.
B= F=IBI

Where: B flux density (Tesla)

I current (Ampere)
r distance from the wire
F force (Newton)
l length of conductor (meter)
4 x 10-7 (T*m/A) (N/A2)
 Force Between Two Current-
Carrying Conductors
Two parallel wires each carrying a current exerts a
magnetic force on each other. The force is
attractive if the currents are in the same
direction and repulsive if they are in opposite
directions.
The force per unit length can be calculated using:
 Where:
F force (Newton)
I1, I2 currents in the two wires (Ampere)
r distance between the two wires (meter)
L length of the wires (meter)
- 4 x 10-7 (T*m/A) (N/A2)
 Magnetic Field of a Current-
Carrying Loop
The magnetic field at the center of the loop is
B=
The equation is for a single loop. For a coil with N
loops, and if the loops are closely spaced and all
have the same radius,
B= at the center of N circular loops
Quick

Facts:
Magnetic fields are usually represented by lines
just like electric field and they are called magnetic-
field lines.
Magnetic field is the flux per unit area and is
therefore called magnetic flux density
Magnetic-field lines are seldom called magnetic
lines of force because this lines did not point the
direction of the force on a charge.
The number of lines per unit area is proportional
to the magnitude of the field B. Its maximum
intensity is at the magnetic pole.
 Magnetic-field lines are drawn as if it is travelling
from north to south through the surrounding
medium of a bar magnet.
If the fields are produced by an electric current,
the field lines will have no beginning or an end
point.
A uniform magnetic field means, a magnetic field
that has the same magnitude and direction at
every point in a region. A nearly uniform
magnetic field can be observed in the air gap of
an iron core and inside a solenoid.
 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
PARAMETERS:
Magnetomotive Force, mmf the magnetic force
that tends to set up magnetic flux. This force is
produced due to the applied electric current (I) in
the coil of N turns.
In cgs units:
= Maxwell
where:
- flux (Maxwell)
 Weber SI unit of magnetic flux to 108 lines or
maxwells. Named after the German physicist,
Wilhelm Weber (1804-1891).
Maxwell cgs unit of magnetic flux equal to one line
of force. Named after the Scottish physicist, James
Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879).
Gilbert cgs unit of magnetomotive force. Named
after the English physician and physicist, William
Gilbert (1540-1603).
Tesla SI unit of magnetic flux density equal to
Webers per square meter. Named after the Croatian-
American engineer, Nikola Tesla (1856 1943).
 Gauss cgs unit of magnetic flux density equal
to Maxwells per square centimetre. Named after
the German mathematician Johann Karl
Friedrich Gauss (1777 1855)
Oersted cgs unit of magnetic field strength
equal to Gilbert per centimetre. Named after the
Danish physicist and chemist, Hans Christian
Oersted (1777 1851).
Reluctance & Permeance / Permeability &
Reluctivity
Reluctance ( - the opposition offered in a
magnetic circuit to the flow of magnetic flux.
Permeance (P) the reciprocal of reluctance.
Permeability () the ability of a material to
allow magnetic flux to flow.
Reluctivity (v) reciprocal of permeability.

or
Where:
- reluctance (1/Henry)

- free space permeability

= 4 x 10-7(SI units)
= 1 (cgs units)
- permeability of the core
A cross sectional area of the magnetic path (m 2)
v reluctivity
 Reluctance in Series
= + + +
= 1 = 2 = 3 = 4

Reluctance in Parallel

= 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
 ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION
Faradays Law
-states that the magnitude of the emf induced in a
circuit is proportional to the rate of change of the
magnetic flux that cuts across the circuit.
Sometimes broken into two laws:
Faradays first law of electromagnetic induction
Electromotive (emf) is induced whenever a
conductor cuts magnetic flux.
Faradays second law of electromagnetic
induction
The magnitude of the induced emf is proportional
to the relative rate of change of flux.
Mathematically:
e=N
where: e induced emf (Volt)
N number of turns of the conductor
d rate of change to create flux whose
direction opposes any change in the existing
flux.
Induced EMF in a Short Length of Wire
Based from the first law, a voltage can be induced in
a conductor if moved across a magnetic field so
that flux cutting results. This is also known as
Faradays principle.

e = Lv e=
where:
e induced emf (Volt)
flux density at the location of the conductor
(Tesla)
L length of the conductor (meter)
v relative velocity (meter per second)
flux cut by the conductor (Weber)
t time of flux cutting (second)
MASTERY TEST:
This test is intended for you to evaluate your
understanding on the basic principles and theories of
the subject. The questions and problems are based on
the past board exams followed with possible board
questions which are developed from the board
questions.
1. What composes all matter whether liquid, solid, or gas?
A. Atoms
B. Electrons
C. Protons
D. Neutrons
2. Which of the following is not a basic part of an
atom?
A. Electron
B. Proton
C. Neutron
D. Coulomb
3. What is the smallest element of a matter?
A. Atom
B. Molecule
C. Crystal
D. Wafer
4. To determine whether a material can support the
flow of electricity or not, we need to examine its
A. Atomic structure
B. Physical state
C. Molecular structure
D. Chemical composition
5. Approximate diameter of an atom
A. 10-10 m
B. 10-10 m
C. 10-10 mm
D. 10-10 m
6. The lightest kind of atom or element
A. Helium
B. Oxygen
C. Hydrogen
D. Titanium
7. Known as the simplest type of atom
A. Hydrogen
B. Oxygen
C. Helium
D. Nitrogen
8. Approximate diameter of a Hydrogen atom
A. 1.1 x 10-10 m
B. 1.1 x 10-10 m
C. 1.1 x 10-10 mm
D. 1.1 x 10-10 m
9. A commonly used model in predicting the atomic
structure
A. String model
B. Wave model
C. Particle model
D. Bohr model
10. Is at the center of an atomic structure in a Bohr
model.
A. Electrons
B. Protons
C. Neutrons
D.Nucleus
11. The nucleus of an atom is normally
A. Neutral
B. Positively charged
C. Negatively charged
D.Either positively or negatively charged
12. What particles that revolve around the positive
nucleus?
A. Electrons
B. Protons
C. Neutrons
D. Electrons and protons
13. In electricity, positive electric charge refers to
________.
A. Protons
B. Neutrons
C. Electrons
D. Atoms
14. What is the charge of an electron?
A. 1.6022 x 10-19 C
B. 9.1096 x 10-19 C
C. 1.6022 x 10-31 C
D. 1.6022 x 10-31 C
15. The mass of a proton is approximately
A. 1.6726 x 10-19 Kg
B. 1.6726 x 10-27 Kg
C. 1.6022 x 10-19 Kg
D. 1.6022 x 10-27 Kg
16. Protons are about ______ heavier than electrons.
A. 1,800 times
B. Less than thrice
C. Less
D. Twice
17. Approximately, how may electrons that could
equal to the mass of a single proton or neutron?
A. 1,863 electrons
B. 1,683 electrons
C. 1,638 electrons
D. 1,836 electrons
18. The maximum number of electrons (Ne) that can
occupy a given shell (n) is determined by the formula
A. Ne = 2n2
B. Ne = n2
C. Ne = 2n
D. Ne = 2n
19. The definite discrete amount of energy required to
move an electron from a lower shell to a higher shell.
A. Negative energy
B. Positive energy
C. Quantum
D. Quanta
20. Maximum number of orbiting electrons at the
first or K shell
A. 2
B. 4
C. 6
D. 8
 1 A
Answers:
2 D
3 A
4 A
5 D
6 C
7 A
8 D
9 D
10 D
11 A
12 A
13 A
14 A
15 B
16 A
17 D
18 A
19 C
20 A
 ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
Resistors (R)
Resistors are generally passive components used
to limit the flow of electric current or provide a
voltage drop in a circuit.
RESISTOR CLASSIFICATIONS
1. Fixed and Variable Resistors
2. Linear and Nonlinear Resistors
3. General Purpose and Precision Resistor
 Fixed Resistors
Carbon Composition The resistance material is
a form of carbon such as graphite embedded in
a binder.
Metal Film Is constructed using either thin or
thick metallic film deposited in a substrate.
Carbon Film The device resistance is formed
by depositing a carbon film on a ceramic
substrate.
Wire-Wound The resistance of this resistor
depends on how long the wire used.
 VARIABLE RESISTORS OR
POTENTIOMETERS (POTS)
-Variable resistors are constructed from carbon, cermet,
conductive plastic, or wire-wound.
Single Turn A rotary variable resistor that can be rotated
within a single rotation only. The rotation of the shaft is less
than 360o.
Multiple Turns A rotary variable resistor with about 10
turns.
Trimmer Are variable resistors generally used for one-time
adjustment. They maybe single turn or multiple turn.
Rheostat A wire-wound potentiometer used for high-power
applications. Generally rheostats have two terminals only.
 RESISTOR PARAMETERS
Resistance the magnitude indicating how a
resistor opposes electric current flow. The higher
the resistance, the lesser is the current flow. The
resistance of the resistor is either written on the
device or is color-coded.
Tolerance Represents the maximum possible
variation of resistance from its rated value.
Tolerance is expressed in terms of percentage,
such as, , etc.
Power Rating The maximum continuous power,
in watts, that the resistor can dissipate.
 Derating Factor Indicates how the power rating of
resistor decreases as operating temperature increases.
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance (TCR)
Indicates how the resistance of a resistor changes with
respect to operating temperature change.
Working Voltage The maximum voltage that can be
safely applied to a resistor.
Critical Resistance The resistance value where the
maximum voltage and power rating occur
simultaneously.
Drift Refers to the change in resistance with time.
This is also called time stability.
 Noise The noise generated by the resistor due
to the operating temperature and bandwidth.
Frequency Effects The inductive and
capacitive effects offered by the resistor as it
operates at very high frequencies.
Taper For variable resistors, this is the
variation of resistance as a function of the
rotation of the wiper slider.
Resolution In variable resistors, this is the
smallest change in resistance that can be
obtained as the wiper or slider is moved.
 End Resistance The resistance between the
wiper and the end terminal with the wiper
positioned at the corresponding end point.
Wiper or Slider Current The maximum
current that the wiper can handle.
Setting Stability Indicates how a variable
resistor or potentiometer gives the same
resistance value at the same wiper position. Also
called repeatability or precision.
RESISTOR COLOR CODING
COLOR SIGNIFICANT DECIMAL TOLERANCE
FIGURE MULTIPLIER
Black 0 1 +- 20 %

Brown 1 10 + 1%
-
Red 2 100 + 2%
-
Orange 3 1000 + 3%
-
Yellow 4 10000 GMV

Green 5 100000 + 5%
-
Blue 6 1000000 +- 6 %
Violet 7 10000000 + 12.5 %
-
Gray 8 0.01 + 30 %
-
White 9 0.1 + 10 %
-
Gold - 0.1 + 5%
-
Silver - 0.001 + 10 %
-
No Color - - + 20%
-
 CAPACITOR AND
CAPACITANCE
Capacitor (C) A device that stores electric
energy, previously called condenser
(deprecated). Essentially consists of two
conducting plates called electrodes separated
by a layer of an insulating medium called
dielectric.
 Capacitance (C) The electrical size of the
capacitor or a measure of how much electric
energy a capacitor can store. Also previously
called capacity (deprecated) and permittance
(obsolete).
Farad (F) The SI unit of capacitance. A
capacitor has a capacitance of 1 farad if it can
store 1 coulomb of charge when its plates have
a potential difference of 1 volt. Named after the
British physicist and chemist, Michael Faraday
(1791 - 1867).
C= Farad
Where:
C capacitance of capacitor in farad, F
Q charge stored in coulomb, C
E potential difference across the capacitor in
volt, V
Elastance (S) The reciprocal of capacitance and
has a unit of daraf.

S= daraf
Capacitors are generally used as:
- Blocking DC
- Coupling ac
- Bypassing
- Filtering
- Tuning
- Signal Generation
- Energy storage
 3 BROAD CATEGORIES OF CAPACITORS
Fixed
Variable
Chip

FIXED CAPACITORS
- Dielectric is a prime influence on a capacitance
size, a host of dielectrics are used in the
construction of capacitors, thereby classifying
them according to their dielectrics.
Mica capacitors used mica for its dielectric.

-one of the earliest made, and still used capacitor.

-capacitance values range from approximately 1pF
to 0.1 .
- Used over a wide temperature range (-55 to
+1500C.
-Mica is a natural mineral, chemically inert and
highly stable dielectric, they have a high
insulation resistance.
Silvered Mica with a thin layer of silver, which is
screened and fired onto the surface of the mica.
-Among its advantages over mica are mechanical stability
and more uniform characteristics.
Paper Capacitors the dielectric is Kraft paper
impregnated with a wax or resin. It is generally
packaged as a rolled sandwich.
-Variety of values, 500pF to 50F.
-Operating ambient temperatures is as high as 125 oC
-Are low cost, can withstand high voltages
-They are however temperature-sensitive, a 10 oC rise in
ambient temperature may reduce the life of the
capacitor by as much as 50 percent!
Plastic Film Capacitors the plastics used include
polysterene, polycarbonate, and polyester (Mylar).
Polysterene capacitors exhibit a low dissipation factor,
small capacitance change with temperature, and very
good stability. They tend to be large in size, and their
maximum operating temperature is 85 oC.
Polycarbonate capacitors have a dissipation factor and
stability, which approach those of polysterene capacitors.
They can operate at room temperatures as high as 140 oC.
Polyester capacitors (Mylar capacitors) are the most
widely used plastic capacitor. They are highly stable and
exhibit a greater resistance to moisture than kraft paper.
The maximum operating temperature of mylar capacitors
is 125.
Ceramic capacitors there are two basic types of
ceramic dielectrics: low k and high k.
Low-k ceramic capacitor can be made to exhibit
zero temperature coefficient.
-Widely used in temperature-compensation networks.
-They operate at voltages as high as 6 kV and up to 125.
-Its capacitance value is generally limited to 0.001 .
High-k ceramic capacitor change their value
appreciably with temperature, dc voltage, and
frequency.
-Has capacitance values up to 2.2F
-Maximum working voltage of 100 V
 Glass capacitor is made by stacking alternate
layers of aluminium foil and glass ribbon in a
sandwich structure which is similar to the mica
capacitor.
Are extremely reliable and stable, it is claimed
that any two glass capacitors, regardless of their
value or size, exhibit a temperature coefficient
within 10 ppm/ of weach other.
Can operate at voltages as high as 6000 V and
up to 125.
The range of capacitor values is 10 pF to 0.15
F
Vacuum capacitor a vacuum is used as the
dielectric.
-For very high voltage application, as high as 60
kV.
-Vacuum capacitors range from 1 to 5000 pF.
Metallic dielectric capacitor the dielectric,
such as paper or plastic, is deposited with a thin
metallic film instead of separate metal foils.
-Volume savings up to 75 percent can be realized.
-With low insulation resistance and therefore not
recommended for coupling and logic circuits.
Electrolytic capacitor there are two basic types,
aluminum and tantalum electrolytic, and are
either polarized or nonpolarized.
-Used in applications where a large value of
capacitance in a small volume (high volumetric
efficiency) is required, such as a filter in a power
supply.
Polarized electrolytic capacitors a plus sign
is printed on the package near one of the two
leads. When the capacitor is used, the lead with
plus sign must be connected to a higher dc
potential than the unmarked lead, otherwise, the
capacitor may be permanently damaged.
Nonpolarized electrolytic capacitors no
restraint exits for connecting nonpolarized
electrolytics in a circuit. They are used for such
applications as ac motor starting, crossover
networks, and large-pulse signals.
Aluminum electrolytic capacitors have high dc
leakage and low insulation resistance. Their
shelf life is limited and their capacitance
deteriorates with time and use. However, they
enjoy a high volumetric efficiency and are low in
cost.
 Tantalum electrolytic capacitors
have a long shelf life, stable operating
characteristics, increased operating temperature
range, and a greater volumetric efficiency. The
chief disadvantages in comparison to the
aluminium electrolytic are its greater cost and
lower voltage rating. There are three types of
tantalum electrolytics: foil, wet anode, and solid
anode.
Energy storage capacitors capacitors which
store energy that can be discharged in a time
interval from a fraction of a microsecond to
several hundred microseconds.
-Dielectric used often consists of a specifically
prepared and impregnated kraft paper.
-Capacitance values of 0.5 to 250 uF
-Voltage rating up to 50 kV are available
 VARIABLE CAPACITORS
-Air-variable capacitor commonly used type
variable capacitor and is composed of two sets
of plates, usually made of aluminum. One set,
reffered to as the rotor, is mounted on a shaft
and meshes with a set of fixed metal plates,
referred to as the stator. The stator and rotor
plates are never permitted to touch each other.
Its capacitance values range from a few
picofarads up to 500 pF, their maximum voltage
rating is approximately 9 kV.
 Vacuum-variable capacitor used for higher
operating voltages, up to 60 kV.
Trimmer capacitors a variety of small
capacitors using air, ceramic, mica, quartz, and
other dielectrics are available for circuit
applications. They are utilized for fine tuning and
in hybrid microelectronic circuits. Their
capacitance values range from a few picofarads
to about 100 pF.
 CHIP CAPACITORS
-Often no larger than a match head, chip capacitors
ranging in values from few picofarads to 100 F are
available for hybrid microcircuits. Because of their
volumetric efficiency, ceramic and tantalum chips
commonly used.
Ceramic chip capacitor is usually constructed as a
multilayered sandwich of ceramic
and screened-on conductor.
Tantalum chip capacitor constructed in essentially
the same manner as the solid-anode electrolytic, and is
least expensive compared to the other chip capacitors.
 Porcelain chip capacitor used instead for low
loss at microwave frequencies, and is the most
expensive.

CAPACITOR TERMS AND PARAMETERS

Electrodes two metal plates of a capacitor.
Dielectric an insulator that separates the two
electrodes.
Relative dielectric constant, k compare
different dielectrics with that of a vacuum fow
which k = 1. Note that the dielectric constant of
air is approximately equal to that of a vacuum.
 Charge, Q the charge stored (coulombs)
stored in a capacitor equals the product of the
capacitance C (farads) and the voltage E (volts)
across the capacitor.
Tolerance The variation in the capacitance
expressed as a percentage of its specified value
at 25, where 25 is referred to as the nominal
value.
Temperature coefficient, TC the change in
capacitance per degree change in temperature.
It is generally expressed in parts per million per
O
degree Celsius (ppm/) C.
 Working Voltage the maximum voltage that can
be impressed across a capacitor for continuous
operation. This rating must indicate whether the
voltage is dc or ac, in general, the rating is not
the same.
Breakdown voltage the maximum capacitor
voltage that causes the dielectric to become
damaged. It is also referred to as the surge and
test voltage.
DC leakage refers to a minute direct current
that flows in a capacitor at a specified direct
voltage. Leakage is due to the presence of a few
free carriers of charge in the dielectric.
 Insulation resistance, IR The resistance of the
dielectric. The greater is the resistance, the less
is the leakage current. Insulation resistance
decreases with increasing temperature.
Power factor, PF expresses the ratio of energy
wasted to the energy stored in a capacitor.
Impedance, Z in ohms. The total opposition to
the flow of alternating current. It is equal to the
square root of the sum of the capacitive
reactance squared and the equivalent series
resistance squared.
 Dissipation factor, Q - the quality factor is one
over the dissipation factor.
Ripple current and voltage ripple current
(voltage) is the ac component of a unidirectional
current (voltage)
 CAPACITANCE
CALCULATION
Capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor
(With a uniform dielectric medium)
C= or C = k
Where:
C capacitance in farad
A area of each plate in square meter
d distance between plates or thickness of
dielectric material in meter.
 absolute permittivity = 8.854 x 10-12 C2/Nm2
- relative permittivity of the dielectric
k - - dielectric constant
Capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor
1.With multiple different dielectric materials and thickness
C=
2. With the same dielectric materials and thickness:
and t=
C=
3. With partly air between
C=

Capacitance of a multilayer n-parallel-plate

capacitor
C=
Where:
A effective area
t- dielectric thickness
n number of plates
Capacitance of a concentric spherical capacitor
C=

Capacitance of a coaxial cable

C= F/m

Series Connected Capacitors

=
Voltage Division Theorem for Capacitors in Series

Parallel Connected Capacitors

=

+
Quick Facts:
Capacitors store electric energy at the plates not
at the dielectric.
Capacitor will initially oppose change in voltage.
When a composite signal (DC + ac) is routed
into a capacitor, the DC will be blocked while the
ac can pass.
The voltage rating of the capacitor depends on
the type and thickness of dielectric.
Charged high-voltage capacitors are very
dangerous for electric shock!
 INDUCTORS AND
INDUCTANCE
-Inductance can be defined electrically as the
ability of a conductor or wire to produce voltage
when the current varies. Physically, it is a coil of
wire called inductor.
Inductance of a coil, (Physically):
L=
Where:
L inductance (Henry)
u0 - permeability of free space
= 4x10-7 henry per meter
ur relative permeability of the core used
=1 for air and vacuum
A cross sectional area of the magnetic path
(m2)
N number of turns
l mean length of the magnetic path (meter)
Henry (H) unit of inductance. Named after the
American physicist, Joseph Henry (1791
1878).
Inductance of a coil (With current flowing):
L= L=
Where:
I current (Ampere)
- flux (Weber)
- flux linkage (Weber)
- reluctance of the magnetic path (1/Henry)
Induced Potential or Voltage:
E=L
Where:
e- self-induced voltage (Volt)
L inductance (Henry)
di/dt rate of change of current
(Amp/second)
Inductance with varying reluctance
L=N
Where:
- rate of change in flux (Webers/second)
di/dt rate of change in current (Ampere/second)
Inductance of a coaxial cable
L = 2 x 10-7 In D__
d
where:
L inductance (Henry per meter)
D diameter of the outer conductor
d diameter of the inner conductor
Inductance of two long cylindrical conductors,
parallel and external to each other
L = 4 x 10-7 ln
Where:
L inductance (Henry)
D distance between the two wires (meter)
-radius of the two wires, respectively (meter)
Series Connected Inductors

Parallel Connected Inductors

=
Mutual Induction
-It is the condition of inducing an emf in a coil by magnetic
flux lines generated in another coil.
Mutual Inductance (M) is a measure of the amount of
mutual induction that exist between two magnetically
coupled coils.
M=k
Where:
M mutual inductance (Henry)
L - self inductance of coil 1 (Henry)
L2 self
1 inductance of coil 2 (Henry)

k coefficient of coupling
k = 1, if all the flux produced by are linked to L2
 Series Coils with Mutual
Inductance
Inductance in series aiding the common current produces
the same direction of magnetic fields.
=
Inductance in series opposing the common current
produces opposite fields.
=
Where:
L - total inductance, series aiding (Henry) L -
total inductance, series opposing (Henry) M mutual
Ta
inductance between the two coils (Henry)
To
 Parallel Coils with Mutual
Inductance
Inductance in parallel aiding
LTa =

Inductance in parallel opposing

LTo =
Energy Stored
W=

Where:
W energy stored (Joule)
L inductance of the coil (Henry)
I current flowing in the coil (Ampere)
 DC CIRCUITS
Ohms Law
Ohms law is one of the most fundamental law in
electrical circuits relating voltage, current, and
resistance. This law was developed in 1827 by
German physicist Georg Simon Ohm (1787 -1854).
According to Ohms law, the current (I) flowing in an
electrical circuit is directly proportional to the applied
voltage (V) and inversely proportional to the
equivalent resistance (R) of the sid circuit.
Mathematically,
I= _E_
R
Where:
E applied voltage (Volt)
R resistance of the circuit (Ohm)
I current drawn (Ampere)
 ELECTRICAL POWER
Electrical Power the rate at which electrical energy is used or
consumed.
Watt the unit of electrical power, equivalent to one joule or
energy consumed in one second (W = J/s). Named after the
Scottish engineer and inventor James Watt (1736 1819).
P = EI P = I2 R P=
Where:
P electrical power (Watt)
E voltage (Volt)
I current (Ampere)
R resistance (Ohm)
 ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND
HEAT ENERGY
Energy the capacity to do work.
Electrical Energy (W):
W = Pt
Where:
W electrical energy (Joule)
P electrical power (Watt)
t time (second)
The unit of energy, Joule, is named after the English
physicist James Prescott Joule (1818 1889).
Heat Energy Equivalent (Q):
Q = 0.239 W
Where:
Q heat energy (calorie)
W electrical energy (Joule)
Kilowatt-hour (kW-hr) is the common unit in
which electrical energy is sold to consumers.
This is equivalent to the energy supplied by a
power of 1000 Watts for one hour.
kW-hr = 1000 watts x 1 hour
 SERIES CIRCUIT
Series circuit a circuit connection in which the
components are connected to form one
conducting path.
Resistors in series the resistors are connected
end to end.
RT = R1 + R 2 + R3
ET = E1 + E2 + E3
IT = I1+ I2 + I 3
PT = P1 + P2 + P3
 VOLTAGE DIVISION
THEOREM (VDT)
FOR RESISTORS IN SERIES
General Formula:
=
Where:
E - voltage across any of the resistors in the circuit
E x total voltage across the circuit
R - the resistor concerned
R T - the sum of all resistances connected in series

T
For Two Resistors in Series:
E1 =
E2 =

For Three Resistors in Series:

E1 =
E2 =
E3 =
 PARALLEL CIRCUIT
Parallel circuit a circuit connection in which
the components are connected to form more
than one conducting path.
Resistors in parallel the resistors are
connected across each other.
RT For Two resistors in Parallel
R
T
ET
IT
PT
 CURRENT DIVISION
THEOREM (CDT)
FOR RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
General Formula:
Ix

Where:
I - current in any of the resistors in the circuit
x
I - total current or current source of the circuit
T
R - the resistor concerned
T
R - the equivalent resistance of the parallel circuit
x
For Two Resistors in Parallel:
I I2
1

SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT
Series-parallel circuit a circuit connection
combining both series and parallel but when
simplified will result into a series circuit.
R
T

PARALLEL-SERIES CIRCUIT
Parallel-series circuit a circuit connection
combining both parallel and series but when
simplified will result into a parallel circuit.
. R
T

DELTA AND WYE CIRCUITS

Delta to WYE transformations:
X= X= X=

In general: RWYE =

WYE to DELTA transformations

A= B= C=

In general:
RDELTA =
With A = B = C = RDELTA = and X = Y = Z = RWYE = RY
or Ry =

NETWORKS LAWS AND THEOREMS

KIRCHHOFFS LAW
Kirchhoffs Law are also called Laws of Electric Networks,
these laws were formulated in 1847 by German physicist,
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824 1887).
KIRCHHOFFS CURRENT LAW (KCL)
The algebraic sum of the currents entering and
leaving any node or junction in an electric circuit
is zero.
0

Where:
In is the nth current entering (or leaving) the node
N is the number of currents at the node
KIRCHHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW (KVL)
The algebraic sum of the voltage drops and the
supply voltages in any closed path or loop in a
circuit is zero.
0

Where:
Vn is the nth voltage in a loop
N is the number of voltages in a loop
 MESH AND NODAL ANALYSIS
Mesh and Nodal Analysis are used in analyzing circuits
with many meshes (loops) and nodes.
The equations for these analyses are developed using
the combination of KCL and KVL.
These methods will have fewer equation needed and are
the most commonly used in network analysis.
MESH CURRENT ANALYSIS OR
MAXWELLS LOOP METHOD
The idea on this method is to solve for the mesh
currents.
Mesh currents should therefore be the independent
variables in developing equations from the circuit.
Steps in using MESH CURRENT ANALYSIS
1. Define each mesh current in the circuit
2. Develop equations by applying KVL around each mesh,
expressing each voltage drop in terms of one or more mesh
currents.
3. Solve the mesh currents from the equations.
4. After having the mesh currents, solve for the other
unknowns.
NODAL ANALYSIS METHOD
The idea on this method is to solve for the node voltages.
Node voltages should therefore be the independent variables
in developing equations from the circuit.
In a circuit containing n nodes, we can develop at most n-1
independent equations.
Steps in using NODAL ANALYSIS METHOD
1. In circuits with n nodes, choose a reference node
(usually, but not necessarily, ground) where all
other node voltages will be referred to this node.
2. Define the remaining n 1 node voltages as
the independent variables.
3. Develop the n 1 equations by applying KCL at
each of the nodes, expressing each current in
terms of the adjacent node voltages.
4. Solve the equations.
5. After solving the node voltages, solve for the
other unknowns.
SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
In a linear network having more than one source, the current
and voltage in any part of the network can be found by
adding algebraically the effect of each independent source
evaluated separately. (Note: While evaluating the effect of
a particular source, all other sources are terminated by
short-circuiting all voltages and opening all current
sources.)
THEVENINS & NORTONS THEOREMS
Thevenins and Nortons theorems are used when a load
is supplied from a network consisting of voltage/current
sources.
The supplying network can be replaced by a simple circuit,
consisting only of a single resistor and a source. Voltage
source for Thevenins and current source for Nortons.
THEVENINS THEOREM
The supplying network can be replaced by a single
voltage source, Vth in series with a single
resistance, RTH.
Where:
VTH = Vo is the networks open-circuit voltage
between terminals a and b with the load
removed.
RTH = R0 is the networks open-circuit resistance
between terminals a and b without load.
NORTONS THEOREM
The supplying network can be replaced by a
single current source, IN in parallel with a single
resistance, RN.
Where:
IN = ISC is the networks short-circuit current at
terminals a and b.
RN = RO is the networks open-circuit
resistance between terminals a and b without
load.
 MILLMANS THEOREM
Millmans Theorem deals with the computation
of the common voltage when different voltage
sources with resistance are connected in
parallel.
The common voltage of several parallel
branches having different E and R is t he ratio
between the algebraic sums of currents that
each source delivers when short-circuited and
the algebraic sum of the internal conductance.
Vab =
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
To be able to transfer maximum power to the load
from the source, the load resistance must be
equal to the source internal resistance.
maximum power transfer,
RL = RS

AC CIRCUITS
Alternating Current (AC) is a time-dependent
signal whose amplitude continuously varies.
AC Circuits electric circuits that are supplied with
alternating sources (AC Sources)
 IMPORTANT PARAMETERS OF ALTERNATING
SIGNAL
Period (T) the time of one complete cycle in
seconds.
Frequency (f) the number of cycles per second,
(Hertz).
Wavelength ( ) the length of one complete cycle.
Propagation velocity (v) the speed of the signal.
Standard for light and radio waves: v = 3 x 108 m/s
Standard for sound waves: v = 344 m/s

__
1
f=
T
 THE SINUSOIDAL WAVE
Practically all of the electric power generated by
generators that are used in households and
industries are in the form of sinusoidal voltages.
_
General Equation: a = Amsin0 = Amsint uu t
Where:
a is the instantaneous amplitude (amplitude at any
given time)
Am - maximum amplitude of the signal
_
0 angle of rotation (in degrees)
- uangular
u velocity (in radians per second)
t time (in seconds)
 THE DIFFERENT VALUES
FROM SINUSOIDAL WAVE:
Maximum value of positive peak value the highest
level of the sinusoidal wave.
i.e. Amax, Am, Em, I m, E peak, Ep, I p, etc.
Minimum value of negative peak value the lowest
level of the sinusoidal wave.
i.e. -Amax, -Am, -Em, -I m, -E peak, -Ep, -I p, etc.
Peak-to-peak the distance or amplitude between the
positive peak and the negative peak.
Peak-to-peak value = 2 x peak value
Ep-p = 2Ep = 2Em
Instantaneous value the level of the signal at a
particular instant of time.
e = Emsin2ft (instantaneous voltage)
i = Imsin2ft (instantaneous current)
Root-mean-square (rms) or effective value the value
that would have the same heating effect as of DC.
Rms value = = 0.707 Am ;
Erms = ; Irms =
Half-wave average value the mean or average of all the
instantaneous values with only one-half cycle considered. (Note
that the average for the whole one cycle is zero)
HW ave. value = 0.636 Am
Form factor the ratio of root-mean-square (effective)
value to the average value during half-cycle.

THE OPPPOSITION OF ALTERNATING CIRCUITS

With DC sources, only the resistance opposes the electric current
flow, while in AC, there is another factor, called the reactance.
Resistance (R) opposes the ac current by the same factor as in
D C circuits.
Reactance (X) depends on the frequency (f) of the ac source
and the value of either component, the inductance (L) of an
inductor, or capacitance (C) of a capacitor.
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE (XL)
Is the property of an inductor to oppose alternating
current.

AC VOLTAGE AND RLC

As AC voltage is applied into a circuit consisting of either or a
combination of resistor R, inductor L, and capacitor C, the curren
produced will have a phase angular difference from the voltage.
The phase angle of the current depends on the circuit
components.
PURELY RESISTIVE LOAD
The ac voltage is supplying a circuit with only a resistor as its load.
The current will be in-phase with the voltage.
PURELY INDUCTIVE LOAD
The ac voltage is supplying a circuit with only as its load. If
the inductor is considered ideal, the current then is
lagging by 90 degrees of the voltage.
PURELY CAPACITIVE LOAD
The ac voltage is supplying a circuit with only a capacitor
as its load. If the capacitor is considered ideal, the
current then is leading by 90 degrees of the voltage.
SERIES AC CIRCUIT
In series AC circuit phasor analysis, it is customary to use
the current phasor as the reference since the same
current flows through all components.
The phasor sum of all voltage drops will be equal to the
applied voltage.
SERIES R-L
With the sinusoidal voltage source applied in the circuit;
The circuit common current will also be sinusoidal but not in-phase with the
voltage,it lags the voltage and therefore the circuit has a lagging power
factor PF.
The voltage drop across the resistor will be in-phase with the current.
The voltage drop across the inductor will be 90 degrees ahead of the
current.
SERIES R-C
With a sinusoidal voltage source applied in the circuit:
The circuits common current will also be sinusoidal but not in-phase with
the voltage, it leads the voltage and therefore the circuit has a leading
power factor, PF.
The voltage drop across the resistor will be in-phase with the current.
The voltage drop across the inductor will be 90 degrees behind the
current.
SERIES R-L-C
With the sinusoidal voltage source applied in the
circuit:
The circuit common current will also be sinusoidal
with a phase angle depending on the relative
magnitudes of XL and XC.
PARALLEL AC CIRCUIT
In parallel AC circuit phasor analysis, it is
customary to use the voltage phasor as the
reference, since it is common to all loads.
The phasor sum of all branch currents will be
equal to the total current.
CONDUCTANCE, SUSCEPTANCE, AND
ADMITTANCE
To simplify parallel circuits, it is oftentimes better to
use the reciprocals of resistance, reactance, and
impedance.
Conductance (G) is the ability of a resistor, R to
pass electric current. It is the reciprocal of
resistance, R.
Admittance (Y) is the overall ability of the circuit to
pass alternating current. It is the reciprocal of
impedance, Z.

PARALLEL R-L
With a sinusoidal voltage source applied in the circuit:
The circuits total current lags the voltage and
therefore the circuit has a lagging power factor, PF.
The current at the resistor will be in-phase with the
voltage.
The current at the inductor will be 90o behind the
voltage.
PARALLEL R-C
With a sinusoidal voltage source applied in the circuit:
The circuits total current leads the voltage and therefore
the circuit has a leading power factor, PF.
The current at the resistor will be in-phase with the voltage.
The current at the capacitor will be 90o ahead the voltage.

PARALLEL R-L-C
With a sinusoidal voltage source applied in the circuit:
The total current will have a phase angle depending on the
relative magnitudes of XL and XC or BL and BC.
If XL XC or BL BC, the current lags, like a parallel R-L, and
therefore has a lagging power factor (PF).
If XC XL or BC BL, the current leads, like a parallel R-
C, and therefore has a leading power factor
(PF).

If XL = XC or BL = BC, the current is in-phase, like a

pure R circuit, and therefore has a unity power
factor (PF). This condition is known as parallel
resonance.
COMPLEX RL-RC PARALLEL (Solution by
Admittance)
Complex IMPEDANCE circuits can be solved in so
many ways, and sometimes it will become
simpler if transformed into ADMITTANCE circuit.
The objective is to transform the circuit into as
simple parallel R-L-C.
Equations:
COMPLEX RL-RC PARALLEL (Solution by Impedance)
A direct approach is also possible to solve complex circuit,
and this will lead us to deal with more vectors.
ELECTRICAL TRANSIENTS
A temporary phenomenon occurring in a network prior to
reaching a steady-state condition is known as transient.
Transient period is the period required for the currents
and voltages to adjust themselves to the steady-state
after it is switched on.
L and C initial response to a voltage source:
An initially uncharged inductor acts as an open-circuit the
moment the voltage source is applied (t = 0) and short
circuit at the time equals infinity (t = ).
R, L, and C Voltage and Current Equations:

Quick Facts:
At time t = 0 means at the moment the voltage source is applied, such
as the switch is switched-on for the first time.
At time t = 0, the voltage across the inductor is maximum (equal to the
source voltage).
At time t = 0, the voltage across the capacitor is equal to zero.
At time t = 0, the the current at the inductor is equal to zero.
At time t = 0, the current at the capacitor is maximum.
The voltage and current at the resistor is not a function of time.
 RL SERIES DC CIRCUIT
i= ( __
E
1-
R
) A _
R_
L
t

Voltage transients
R
__
For V V E( 1- )LVolts
t
R: R= e
For V V L= __ diV = E( )__
RVolts
t
L : L= dt L e L
Time Constant: Time constant (T ) is defined as the time
when the magnitude of the exponent of e in the current
formula is unity.
Exponent of e = __ -R
When :
t
L
Power Transients:

Where:
P- power dissipated by the resistors
R
P- power dissipated by the inductor
L
P- total power dissipated in the circuit
T
Energy (E ) stored in the coil
L
E = __
1 I2 L Joules (J)
L 2
RC SERIES DC CIRCUIT
Charge (q) Transients:
q = EC + (qo - EC ) e-t/RC Coulombs (C)
If qo = 0,
__
t
q = EC (1-e RC ) Coulombs (C)
Current__
t
(i) Transients with q o = 0:
__
E
i= R eRC
Current (i) Transients with q o= Q o
where:
i instantaneous current (Ampere)
E supply voltage (Volt)
R resistance of the resistor (ohm)
C capacitance of the capacitor (Coulomb)
Qo initial charge of the capacitor (Coulomb)
+ (sign) if capacitor is discharging
- (sign) if capacitor is charging
Voltage Transients
__
t
(with qo = 0):
V = E (eRC ) __
t

VC= E ( 1- e RC )
Where:
VR - voltage across the resistor (Volt)
VC - voltage across the capacitor ( Volt)
Time Constant : Power Transients:
Where:
PR - power dissipated by the resistor
P - power dissipated by the capacitor
P - total power dissipated in the circuit
T
Energy (EC) Stored in the Capacitor:
E = __ 1 E2 C Joules ( J )
C 2
RESONANCE
-A circuit phenomenon or condition wherein:
The current is in-phase with the voltage.
The circuit power factor becomes unity.
The inductive reactance is equal to the
capacitive reactance.
SERIES RESONANCE
Resonance Frequency (fr)

Where:
L inductance, Henry
C capacitance, Farad
Characteristics of Series Resonance
- At fr, XL = XC
- At fr, Z is minimum (Z = R)
- At fr, I is maximum (I = E/R)
- At fr, Z is resistive ( = 0, I is in phase with E)
- At f< fr, Z is capacitive ( = +, I leads E)
- At f > fr, Z is inductive ( = -, I lags E )
Quality Factor, Q of a Resonant Circuit
Q= ________________________________
Reactive Power of either L or C Resonance
Active Power of R

Q=
_______________
Resonant Rise in Voltage
Voltage
drop across L or C
Total voltage
Vc = QE Volts
Bandwidth (BW)
- A range of frequencies over which operation is satisfactory and is
taken between 2 half-power points (3 dB down points).
 PARALLEL RESONANCE
(THEORETICAL)
Resonant Frequency (fr)
fr = HZ
where:
L inductance, Henry
C capacitance, Farad
Q of a Theoretical Parallel Resonant Circuit
Rp
__ R
__p
Q = XL =
Resonant Rise in Tank Current
Itank = Q IT A
Bandwidth, BW
BW = Hz
fr
__
Quality Factor,
Q Q
For theoretical:
Q=
For practical:
Rp
__
XL

Bandwidth, BW Total Impedance, Z

BW = Z = R s (1 + Q2)

fr
__
Q
 This test is intended for you to evaluate your understanding
on the basic principles and theories of the subject on this
chapter. The questions and problems are based on the past
board examinations, with one or more questions from past
board exams followed with possible board questions which
are developed from the board questions.
1. The total resistance of a two similar wire conductors
connected in parallel is ________.
A. Resistance of one wire multiplied by 4
B. Same resistance of one wire
C. One half the resistance of one wire
D. Double the resistance of one wire
2. What is the value of a resistor with colors from
left: orange, Blue, Gold, and Silver?
A. 34 ohms 10%
B. 3.6 ohms 10%
C. 3.4 ohms 10%
D. 36 ohms 10%
3. Determine the value of a resistor with colors from
left to right; Brown, Green, Gold, and Silver.
A. 1.5 ohms 10%
B. 15 ohms 10%
C. 1.5 ohms 20%
D. 15 ohms 20%
4. Resistors with high value usually have lower
wattage ratings because of ________.
A. Varying current
B. Lower current
C. Bigger size
D. High current
5. Smaller resistors usually have _______ resistance
value.
A. Small
B. High
C. Low
D. Very small
6. When resistors are connected in series, what happens?
A. The effective resistance is decreased
B. Nothing
C. The tolerance is decreased
D. The effective resistance is increased
7. A 33 kilo ohms resistor is connected in series with a parallel
combination made up of a 56 kilo ohm resistor and a 7.8 kilo
ohm resistor. What is the total combined resistance of these
three resistors?
A. 63769 ohm
B. 49069 ohm
C. 95800 ohm
D. 39067 ohm
8. If you need a 1.25 kilo ohm resistance and you only have
resistors of 5 kilo ohm, how many of these available
resistors you should connect in parallel to get a 1.25 kilo
ohm value?
A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
D. 5
9. Insulating elements or materials has a capability of
A. Allowing electric current to flow
B. Supporting charge flow
C. Preventing short circuit between conducting wires
D. Making electrical circuits to be completed
10. ________ is used to store electrical energy in an
electrostatic field?
A. A transformer
B. A battery
C. A capacitor
D. An inductor
11. What factors determine the capacitance of a capacitor?
A. Area of plates, amount of charge on the plates and the
dielectric constant of the material between the plates.
B. Area of the plates, voltage on the plates and distance
between the plates
C. Area of the plates, distance between the plates, and the
dielectric constant of the material between the plates
D. Area of the plates, voltage on the plates and dielectric
constant of the material between the plates
12. Factors that determine the capacitance of a
capacitor.
A. Area of the plate; directly proportional
B. Distance between plate; inversely proportional
C. Dielectric constant; directly proportional
D. All of these
13. An electronic/electrical component/ device used
to store electrical energy.
A. Capacitor
B. Inductor
C. Resistor
D. Lightning arrester
14. Which of t he following describes the action of a
capacitor?
A. Converts ac into dc
B. Stores electrical energy
C. Opposes change in current flow
D. Creates a dc resistance
15. A parallel plate capacitor has the following values; k = 81;
d = 0.025 inches; A = 6 square inches. What is the
capacitance of the capacitor?
A. 4.372 picofarad
B. 43.72 picofarad
C. 4372 picofarad
D. 437.2 picofarad
16. five picofarad is equivalent to ________.
A. 5 x 10 to the -12th
B. 50 x 10 to the 12th
C. 5 x 10 to the -10th
D. 500 x 10 to the -10th
17. if two micro-farad capacitors are connected in
series, what will be the total effective capacitance?
A. 0.125 microfarad
B. 0.0624 microfarad
C. 2.5 microfarad
D. 0.50 microfarad
18. A 20 F capacitor is charged by a 12-V battery.
What is the stored energy at the capacitor?
A. 2.88 x 10-3 J
B. 1.07 x 10-3 J
C. 1.44 x 10-3 J
D. 2.88 x 10-2 J
19. Which of the following characterizes inductance?
A. Tends to oppose dc
B. Tends to oppose changes in voltage
C. Tends to oppose changes in current
D. Opposes all frequencies equally
20. A coil of wire wound, with or without a magnetic
core designed to have a higher self-inductance
than a straight wire.
A. Inductor
B. Solenoid
C. Toroid
D. Inductive relay
 ANSWERS:
1. C 2. B 3. A 4. B 5. B 6. D 7. D 8. C 9. C 10. C
11. C 12. D 13. A 14. B 15. C 16. A 17. A 18. C 19. C 20. A
 ELECTRONIC DEVICES
FUNDAMENTALS
Electrical Classification of Materials
MATERIALS
Conductor a substance, body or material ...
... which has more electrons that are free to move
... which supports charge carriers flow
... which supports the flow of electricity
... which allows electric current to flow with ease
... which has a very low electrical resistance
... with less than four valence electrons
 Insulator material with more than four valence electrons. An
insulator has a characteristic that is extremely opposite to that
of a conductor.
Example: glass, mica, and hard rubber
Semiconductor with exactly four valence electrons.
Semiconductor have electrical characteristics in between
conductors and insulators.
Examples:
Elementary Semiconductors (Group IV A):
Silicon (Si)
Germanium (Ge)
Compound Semiconductors (IIIA VA)
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
Aluminum Arsenide (AIAs)
Gallium Phosphide (GaP)
Quick Facts:
In semiconductor materials, such as Si and Ge,
the atoms are held together or bonded by
sharing their valence electrons (covalent bond).
The outermost shell or the valence shell of a
single semiconductor atom has only four valence
electrons and is therefore incompletely filled.
When a semiconductor atom is viewed together
with its neighboring atoms, eight valence
electrons can be considered. The other four
electrons are from surrounding atoms being
shared to make its outer shell completely filled.
 Ideally, in semiconductor crystal, and at 0 o K or
absolute zero (-273.15o C), there are no free
electrons; all valence electrons are held at its
atom and by neighboring atom.
At room temperature, 300o K (25o C), valence
electrons can acquire sufficient energy and
become free as they move from valence band to
the conduction band.
Types of Semiconductor Materials
Intrinsic material semiconductor that is free
from impurities, such as pure silicon (Si) or
germanium (Ge).
Extrinsic material semiconductor with some
impurities added to change its electrical
properties. The process of adding is called doping
n-type an extrinsic semiconductor material
formed by adding donor impurities , such as
pentavalent ( with five valence electrons).
Common pentavalent elements are Antimony (Sb),
Arsenic (As) and Phosphorus (P).
 p-type an extrinsic semiconductor material
formed by adding acceptor impurities , such as
trivalent ( with three valence electrons).
Common trivalent elements are Boron (B),
Gallium (Ga), and Indium (In).
EXTRINSIC MATERIALS (Doped
Semiconductor)
Semiconductor are purposely doped so that its
electrical properties are varied for different
applications.
Quick Facts:
When an intrinsic material is doped (the addition of
impurities) it will become extrinsic.
If only a few impurities is added it is called lightly
doped.
With more impurities added, it is called heavily doped.
In semiconductors there are two types of currents:
1.The negative current or negative carrier, this current
is the flow of electrons, from negative to positive.
2. The positive current or positive carrier, this current is
the flow of holes, from positive to negative.
 Ideally, n-type materials have negative carriers
only, but practically there are a few numbers of
positive carriers.
For n-type materials, the majority carriers are
electrons, minority carriers are the holes
(absence of electron).
The donor atom, (in this case Sb), becomes
positive because one of its electrons (the 5th),
were freed or donated.
When a potential difference is applied across n-
type materials:
 Holes flow from positive to negative
Electrons flow from negative to positive
Since there are more electrons than holes, the net
flow will be that of electrons, (the majority carrier).
THE P-TYPE MATERIAL
Quick Facts:
Ideally, p-type materials have positive carriers
only, but practically there are a few numbers of
negative carriers.
For p-type materials, the majority carriers are
holes (positive), minority carriers are the electrons
(negative).
 The acceptor atom, (in this case B), becomes
negative because it accepts one more electron.
When a potential difference is applied across the
p-type materials:
Holes flow from positive to negative
Electrons flow from negative to positive
Since there are more holes than electrons, the
net flow will be that of holes, (the majority
carrier).
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
THE pn-JUNCTION
When a p-type junction and n-type materials are
brought together, they dorm so-called pn-junction.
Quick Facts:
At the junction, the electrons form the n-type and holes
from the p-type attract each other and combine, cancelling
their net charge.
Due to the combination and cancellation of electrons and
holes at the junction, the junction will have no more charged
carriers, and said to be depleted of charged carriers.
The junction is also called depletion region due to the fact
that neither electrons nor holes exist at the junction.
THE pn-JUNCTION OPERATION
When a potential difference or voltage is applied
at p-type and n-type materials, the junction will
either narrow or widens depending on the
polarity of the applied voltage.
The junction narrows, when the p-type is more
positive than the n-type. Also called forward
biased.
The junction widens, when the p-type ismore
negative than the n-type. Also called reverse
biased.
Forward Biased
The narrowed junction enables current to flow.
Quick Facts:
When forward biased, positive holes (majority
carriers) at the p-type are repelled by the positive
supply and flow towards the n-type crossing the
narrowed junction, and then are attracted to the
negative supply.
Negative electrons (majority carriers) at the n-type
are repelled by the negative supply and flow
towards the p-type also crossing the narrowed
junction, and then are attracted to the positive
supply.
 Reverse Biased
The widened junction blocks the current flow.
Quick Facts:
When reverse biased, holes at the p-type are attracted to
the negative supply and at the same time, electrons at
the n-type are attracted to the positive supply. With these
actions, the junction or the depleted region will widen.
Minority carriers at p-type are negative electrons, and
are repelled by the negative supply towards the n-type.
Minority carriers at the n-type are positive hole, and are
repelled by the positive supply towards the p-type.
Both motions of minority carriers are called minority
currents or leakage current.
 THE JUNCTION DIODE
The most basic semiconductor diode is
constructed and operated based on the pn-
junction.
Threshold voltage, VTH is the required voltage
across the junction of the diode before forward
current can flow significantly.
For silicon (Si), VTH = 0.7 Volts
For germanium (Ge), VTH = 0.3 Volts
 Reverse Bias no forward current can
flow but only minority carriers (leakage
current) flow. The leakage current is also
called reverse saturation current, Is.
Breakdown Voltage is the maximum
voltage the junction diode can handle
when reverse biased. Other term for
breakdown voltage are: Peak reverse
voltage (PRV) and peak inverse voltage
(PIV).
DIODE FORWARDS CURRENT (ID) EQUATION
I = I ( - 1)
kV
__D
Where:
D S e TK

ID diode current
IS reverse saturation current or leakage current
VD forward voltage across the diode
TK room temperature oK
= TC + 273
K = 11,600 / n
DIODE RESISTANCE
DC or Static Resistance is the forward
resistance of the diode when in DC circuit
analysis.
VD (DC
__ ______________
Voltage across the diode )
RD = ID (Diodes Current )

AC or Dynamic Resistance is the forward

resistance of the diode when in ac circuits
analysis. (Small signal analysis).
r
dVD
__ _______________
(Small chain of Voltage)
d = dI D (Small Change of Diodes Current)

___
26 mV
= ID
Average AC Resistance is the forward
resistance of the diode when in an ac circuits
analysis. (Large signal analysis).

DIODE CAPACITANCE
Forward-bias Capacitance:
CD diffusion capacitance or storage
capacitance
Reverse-bias Capacitance:
CT transition capacitance or depletion-region
capacitance
IMPORTANT DIODE PARAMETERS
IF - forward current. The magnitude of current the
diode can handle without burning when
forward biased.
V - forward voltage. The required voltage in order
F
to produce forward current or the voltage drop
across the diode when conducting.
I - reverse saturation current or simply reverse
S current I . The magnitude of current that will leak
R
when the diode is reverse-biased, oftentimes
called leakage current.
VBR - reverse breakdown voltage or peak reverse
voltage (PRV) or peak inverse voltage (PIV).
The maximum reverse voltage that can be
applied before current surges (entering the
zener region).
trr - reverse recovery time. The time taken by the
diode to operate in the reverse condition from
forward conduction.
PDmax - maximum power dissipation. The maximum
power the diode can handle without burning, it is
the product of VDMAX and IDMAX.
Linear Power Derating Factor The reduction of
power handling capability of the diode due to the
increase of ambient temperature from room
temperature.
Maximum Junction Temperature the maximum
temperature the diode can operate before
burning its junction.
THE ZENER DIODE
Similar to junction diodes except that in zener
diode the doping is precisely controlled so that it
will have a well defined and smaller breakdown
voltage.
Quick Facts:
Zener diode is a semiconductor diode specially
designed to utilize zener breakdown region.
Zener diodes have stable and accurate breakdown
voltage.
Zener diodes are normally operated in the reverse
region.
When a zener is properly operated at reverse bias,
its voltage across will be approximately constant
and is equal to the diodes rating voltage.
In the circuit above, the resistor RL which is in
parallel with the zener diode will have the same
voltage with the zener.
 IMPORTANT ZENER DIODE PARAMETERS
VZ - zener or breakdown voltage (VBK or VBO)
I zmax - maximum reverse zener current
Pzmax - maximum power the device can dissipate
T - temperature coefficient
C

THE VARACTOR
Voltage-variable capacitor is a device that utilizes
the variation of the pn junction capacitance when
biased differently.
VARACTOR PARAMETERS
Total diode capacitance, Ct
-The sum of the junction and case capacitances.
-Is genereally specified at a reverse voltage E R of
-4 or -6 V.
-Indicates whether the diode can be used at a
particular frequency of interest.
Series resistance, RS
-The resistance in series with the junction of the
diode.
-It varies with the reverse voltage. Decreasing in
value as the reverse voltage is increased.
Figure of merit, Q:
0.159
Q= ____
fR s C t

Where RS in ohms, f in hertz, and Ct in farads.

Cutoff frequency, fco
The frequency where the Q of the device is unity
Variation of capacitance with temperature
At a junction temperature corresponding to room
temperature (25oC), the normalized value of Ct is
one. As the temperature decreases, the
capacitance falls and increases with increasing
temperature.
Ct ratio The ratio of capacitance variation at a
reverse voltage of -4 or -6 to the capacitance at
approximately 80 percent of the breakdown
voltage is referred to as the Ct ratio.
Conversion efficiency defines the performance
of a varactor used as a frequency multiplier. This
parameter is defined as the ratio of the output
power, Po tot he input power Pi and is expressed
as percentage:
Po
__
n = P i x 100 %
Bi-POLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)
Quick Facts
The word bipolar refers to the two charged carriers, the
n-carriers (electrons) and p-carriers (holes) that are used
in the operation of the transistors.
The base is always a different type of material compared
to both collector and emitter.
Although the emitter and collector are made of the same
material, they are not interchangeable, because they
differ in the level of doping.
The emitter is heavily doped compared to collector and
therefore has a lot of charged carriers, (electrons if n-
type, holes if p-type).
 The base is very thin, about 1/150 part of the
transistors total width.
Normally, it is the base that controls the amount
of current flow between emitter and collector.
Transistor operation can be viewed as;
1. The emitter emits charged carrier or current
(it is the source of current).
2. The collector collects the charged carriers
emitted by the emitter (it is the current drain).
3. The amount of charged carriers or current that
is emitted by the emitter and collected by the
collector is controlled at the base.
THE STATES/REGIONS OF OPERATION AND
PROPER BIASING OF BIPOLAR
TRANSISTORS
Since a transistor has two junctions, (B-C and B-
E), there are four (22) possible combinations of
biasing the junctions.
Base Emitter Base Collector Transistor Common
Junction Junction Operation Application
Forward Reverse Active Amplifier

Forward Forward Saturation Switching

Reverse Reverse Cut-off Switching

Reverse Forward Cut-off Switching

CHARACTERISTIC CURVE (TYPICAL)
Quick Facts:
BJT has two junctions, the base-emitter (B-E)
junction and the base-collector (B-C) junction.
The operating mode of BJT depends on how the
two junctions are supplied or biased.
BJT has three operating modes; these modes if
referred to its characteristic curve are called
regions of operations, they are:
1. Cut-off mode / cut-off region
2. Saturation mode / saturation region
3. Active mode / active region
 Transistor at cut-off or OFF:
-The emitter is able to emit maximum charged
carriers or currents. (B-E & B-C junctions are
forward biased).
-There is no current flow from emitter to collector.
(Except for leakage current,
IC = ICBO)
- The voltage across collector emitter, V CE is
maximum. (Approximately equal to supply
voltage)
- The resistance between collector and emitter is
very high. (Ideally infinite)
 Transistor at saturation or ON:
- The emitter is able to emit maximum charged
carriers or currents. (B-E & B-C junctions are
forward biased)
- Maximum current flow from emitter to collector. (I c
= ICmax)
- The voltage across collector-emitter is minimum.
(Ideally zero, VCE = VCEsat)
- The resistance between collector and emitter is
very low. (Ideally zero)
 Transistor active:
- The emitter is able to emit charged carriers or
currents. (B-E forward, B-C reverse biased)
- Moderate current flow from emitter to collector.
- Moderate voltage across collector-emitter.
- Moderate resistance between collector and
emitter.
IMPORTANT PARAMETER EQUATIONS
(Alpha) Common base amplification factor.
It is the ratio of the collector current change to
the change in emitter current, assuming that the
collector base voltage is constant. Alpha ranges
from 0.9 to 0.999.

(Beta) Common emitter forward current

amplification factor. It is the ratio of change in
collector current to the base current. Beta
ranges from 20 to 600.
 Y (Gamma) Common collector forward current
amplification factor. It is the ratio of change in emitter
current to the base current. ( y is not commonly
used)

AC ANALYSIS (SMALL SIGNAL)

Hybrid parameter model or h-parameter model the
most commonly used equivalent AC circuit for small
signal analysis.
Subscript notation for h-parameter model
Subscript Meaning
i Input parameter

R Reverse parameter

f Forward parameter

o Output parameter

e Common emitter

b Common base

c Common collector

For common emitter: h , h , h

ie re oe
For common base: h ,h , h , h
ib rb fb ob
For common collector: h , h , h , h
ic rc fc oc
Approximate h parameter model
In most transistors, the reverse transfer voltage ratio hr
and output conductance ho are very small and are
usually neglected in most practical applications.
Quick Facts:
Most amplifiers use common-emitter configuration.
Common-base (CB) and common-collector (CC) are
usually used for impedance matching;
From LOW to HIGH impedance, use CB.
From HIGH to LOW impedance, use CC. (Most common)
Most audio Power Amplifiers usually has a CC output
stage, that is to match its output impedance to the loud
speaker.
Typical values of h-parameters
h-parameter CB CE CC
hi 20 1k 1k

hr 3 x 10-4 2.5 x 10-4 1

h -0.98 50 -50
f
h 0.5 S 25 S 25 S
o

COMPARISON BETWEEN THE

THREE-TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS
Parameter CB CE CC

Input Impedance Low Moderate High

Output Impedance High Moderate Low

Current Gain Low ( ) Moderate High

Voltage Gain High Moderate Low ( )

Power Gain Moderate High Low

Phase Shift None 180o None

 Quick Facts:
Comparison between the common types of biasing:
The two most common concerns regarding the effects of
biasing are power gain and stability.
Fixed-bias has the highest power gain but the most
unstable.
Emitter-stabilized is more stable than fixed-bias but with
lesser gain.
Voltage divider is considered to be the most stable,
(although voltage feedback attains almost same stability)
but relatively has a lower gain.
Voltage feedback has the advantage of having less number
of resistors used (three) compared to voltage divider (four)
without sacrificing much stability.
 TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT
STABILITY
Transistor circuit stability means how a transistor circuit
maintains its operating point or quiescent (Q)-point.
The major factor that affects the stability of a transistor circui
is the change of operating temperature.
Variation of temperature affects the following transistor
parameters:
, it increases with increase in temperature.
VBE, decreases with increase in temperature.
ICO, increases with increase in temperature.
Stability Factors: S(ICO) , S(VBE) , S()

FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR (FET)

BJT operates based on the actual condition of
currents at the junction, while FET operates based
on the effect of electric field at the junction.
BJT and FET Comparison
Item/ BJT FET
Parameter
Terminals Base, Collector, Emitter Gate, Drain, Source

Size Relatively bigger than FET Generally Smaller

Principle of Operation Bipolar (Uses both electrons & Unipolar (Uses only either
holes on its operations) electrons or holes on its operations)
Types npn & pnp n-channel & p-channel

Output Current Current-controlled (Output is a Voltage Controlled (Output is

function of the input current) a function of the input voltage)
Input-circuit bias Forward Reverse

Input Resistance or Impedance Relatively Low (Due to Very high (Due to reversed-
forward-bias input-circuit) bias input circuit)
Input Sensitivity Relatively more sensible Relatively less sensible

Stability Less stable (Affected by More stable (Not much affected

temperature variations) by temperature variations)
TYPES OF FETS:
JFET Junction Field Effect Transistor
are operated by applying voltage across the drain-
source terminal called VDS and a reverse-bias
voltage across gate-source terminal called VGS.
MOSFET Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor FET
Are constructed within a plate or base called the substrate
(SS).
The substrate material is dissimilar to that of the channel;
(i.e., for n-channel type, the substrate is p-type material; for
p-channel type, the substrate is n-type material.
-Depletion Type
-Enhancement Type
 IGFET Insulated-Gate FET (Similar to MOSFET)
VMOSFET Vertical MOSFET
VMOSFET Enhancement-type is normally OFF
(Normally no channel).
Two channels are enhanced after applying proper
voltage at the gate.
The two enhanced channels provide higher current and
power capability.
Quick Facts:
The terminals of JFETs are S-source, D-drain, and
G-gate.
For n-channel type JFET, only electrons are the
charged carriers used. (Unipolar device)
For p-channel type JFET, only holes are the charged
carriers used. (Unipolar device)
FETs current is from the source (S) to drain (D)
passing through the channel that is controlled by the
gate (G).
The thickness of the channel determines the amount
of current can pass from source S to drain D. Thicker
channel, more current, narrow channel, less current.
 The thickness of the channel depends on the
polarity and amount of voltage between the gate
(G) and source (S) terminals, VGS.
JFET is also constructed from p and n type
materials. It also has depletion region at the pn
junction.
The depletion region widens, as the junction is
reverse-bias. The widening of the depletion
region causes the channel to narrow thereby
limiting the amount of current flow.
This test is intended for you to evaluate your
understanding on the basic principles and theories
of the subject. The questions and problems are
based on the past board exams followed with
possible board questions which are developed from
the board questions.

1. The name of pure semiconductor material that has

an equal number of electrons and holes
A. N-type
B. Pure type
C. Intrinsic
D. P-type
2. Elements that has four valence electrons are
classified as
A. Conductor
B. Insulator
C. Elemental semiconductor
D. Compound semiconductor
3. An example of an elemental semiconductor.
A. Germanium (Ge)
B. Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
C. Gallium Phosphide (GaP)
D. Aluminum Arsenide (AlAs)
4. Which of the following is an example of a compound
semiconductor?
A. Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
B. Gallium Phosphide (GaP)
C. Aluminum Arsenide (AlAs)
D. All of the above
5. Germanium has an atomic number of 32 and an
atomic weight approximately 72 amu. How many
electrons, protons and neutrons are there?
A. 32, 32, 40
B. 32, 32, 104
C. 40, 32, 32
D. 40, 32, 104
6. The chemical bond that is present in a crystal lattice
of silicon atoms.
A. Covalent bond
B. Electrovalent bond
C. Ionic bond
D. Metallic bond
7. The atomic weight of a silicon atom is approximately
28 amu. How many electrons, protons, and neutrons
does the atom consists?
A. 14, 42, 14
B. 14, 14, 42
C. 42, 14, 14
D. 14, 14, 14
8. What is the total charge at the nucleus of silicon
atom?
A. -12e C
B. 12e C
C. -14e C
D. 14e C
9. In materials, what do you call the area that separates
the valence band and the conduction band?
A. Energy gap
B. Forbidden band
C. Insulation band
D. A and B are correct
10. At absolute zero temperature, semiconductor
acts as
A. An insulator
B. A conductor
C. A semi-insulator
D. Usual
11. The electron flow in a semiconductor material
is
A. Opposite in direction of hole flow
B. The same direction with hole flow
C. The drift current
D. Known as the conventional current
12. Chemical bond that is significant in metals
A. Ionic bond
B. Electrovalent bonding
C. Covalent bonding
D. Metallic bonding
13. A semiconductor that is free from impurities
A. Intrinsic semiconductor
B. Extrinsic semiconductor
C. Compensated semiconductor
D. Elemental semiconductor
14. The process of adding impurities in a
semiconductor material
A. Growing
B. Diffusion
C. Doping
D. Depleting
15. Impurities with five valence electrons
A. Acceptor
B. Donor
C. Trivalent
D. Pentavalent
16. Example of acceptor impurities
A. Pentavalent impurities
B. Trivalent impurities
C. Tetravalent impurities
D. Hexavalent impurities
17. If the substance used in doping has less than
four valence electrons, it is known as
A. Acceptor
B. Donor
C. Trivalent
D. Pentavalent
18. Commonly used as donor impurities
A. Antimony
B. Arsenic
C. Phosphorus
D. All of the above
19. Example of trivalent impurities
A. Boron
B. Gallium
C. Indium
D.All of the above
20. Donor-doped semiconductor becomes a
A. N-type semiconductor
B. Good conductor
C. P-n semiconductor
D. P-type semiconductor

ANSWERS:
1.C 2.C 3. A 4. D 5. A 6. A 7. D 8. D 9. B 10. A
11. A 12.D 13.A 14.C 15.D 16.B 17.A 18.D 19.D 20.A
 Electronic Circuits
AMPLIFIERS
Amplifiers Electronic circuit which is capable of
increasing the signal magnitude or amplitude without
appreciably altering the signal waveform characteristics.
Quick Facts:
Amplifiers are usually represented by a triangle
The output of an amplifier is represented with a controlled source,
either a voltage or current source.
The output controlled-source is a function of the input signal, and
is dependent on either input voltage or current.
There are four possible combination of input-output relationship:
1. Voltage- controlled Voltage source the output
is a voltage source that is a function of input
voltage
2. Current- controlled Current source the output
is a current source that is a function of input
current.
3. Voltage controlled Current source the output
is a current source that is a function of input
voltage.
4. Current- controlled Voltage source the output
is a voltage source that is a function of input
current.
Classification of Amplifiers
Amplifiers are classified based on different aspects.
Types of Amplifiers
General classification of amplifiers based on the controlling
input parameter ( i.e. Voltage or current) and output
controlled sources ( i.e. voltage source or current source).
Voltage Amplifier- Voltage-controlled voltage source
Current Amplifier- Current- controlled current source
Transconductance Amplifier- Voltage controlled
current source
Transimpedance Amplifier Current- controlled voltage
source
Quick Facts:
Op-amps are basically voltage amplifier
BJTs are basically current amplifiers
FETs and vacuum tubes are transconductance
amplifier
Combinations of discrete components may form a
transimpedance amplifier ( current to voltage
converted)
Classes of Amplifiers
Amplifiers are categorized depending upon the
amount of signal that flows at the output with a
given full cycle input signal.
Class A - The amount of the output signal flow
varies for a 360 degree of the cycle.
Quick Facts:
The DC bias level (Q-point) is usually set at one- half of
the supply voltage , so that the output signal can have a
maximum output swing.
For a class A amplifier , the maximum efficiency is 25 %
50% efficiency can be obtained by using transformer
coupling.
Class B The amount of the output signal flow is 180
degree.
Quick Facts:
The Q- point is set at the cut-off region
The maximum efficiency is 78.5 %
In most practical amplifiers , the Q-point is set just a
little above cut- off to eliminate crossover distortion.
A full 360 degrees output can be obtained by using two
class is amplifiers, one amplifies the positive portion (0-
180 degrees) and the other amplifies the remaining
negative portion (180 360 degrees) . This type of
amplifier is commonly known as the Push-Pull Amplifier
Class AB- The output signal flows for more than
180 degrees but less than 360 degrees.
Quick Facts:
The Q- point is set between class A and class B
level
It is at the active region but near cut- off
Efficiency is less than 78.5 %.