Plant Growth and Development

Recall from Biology class that cells that

function together are called tissues, tissues
that function together are called organs,
and organ systems are groups of organs
that function together
The most important tissue in the evolution
of plants is vascular tissue
There are 3 main plant organs: roots,
stems, and leaves
These form a root system and a shoot system
(stems). The growth of these is called
vegetative growth
Figure 36-2
Sunlight

Shoot system CO2

Transport of water, sugar,

and nutrients through
vascular tissue
Root system

Water

Nutrients
(such as N, P, K)
Roots
Remember, roots arent just for absorption and anchoring,
they can also be for storage
In dicots and gymnosperms, theres a taproot system with
many lateral roots (branch roots)
In seedless vasculars and monocots, theres a fibrous root
system, where the first root to emerge dies and a series of
shallow roots replace it
Root hairs assist by increasing the surface area for
absorption, but most absorption occurs near the tip of the
root
Modified roots:
Prop roots exist to help stabilize tall plants (corn)
Storage roots exist to store extra carbs produced by the plant
(radishes, beets, carrots)
Pneumatophores-stick up out of water or boggy soil to help the
plant absorb oxygen
Aerial roots-are out of the ground and can either be buttress
roots that support large trees or strangling, which can grow
into the bark of other trees
Figure 36-4
Prairies are dominated by grasses and herbaceous plants.

Root systems in prairie plants are diverse.

Big bluestem grass Compass plant Prairie rose

Roots form
a fine mesh

Long, fleshy
taproots
Figure 36-6

Prop roots function in Snorkel roots function

support. in gas exchange.
Stems
Consist of a system of nodes (points of leaf
attachment)
Axillary buds emerge from the sides of the stem, while
terminal or apical buds emerge from the tip of the stem
Apical bud typically exhibits apical dominance-it
produces hormones that keep nearby axillary buds
from developing leaves in favor of elongation
Modified stems
Rhizomes-horizontal underground stems
Bulbs-encase storage leaves (onions)
Stolons-horizontal stems that typically grow above the
surface of the soil (strawberry plants)
Tubers-enlarged ends of rhizomes or stolons for
storage. Eyes on the tuber are axillary buds
Figure 36-3
Apical bud
Node Axillary bud
Internode

Shoot system
Node

Leaves Branch

Stem

Lateral roots
Root system

Water

Nutrients
Taproot (such as N, P, K)
Figure 36-10

Cactus stems store water. Stolons produce new Rhizomes produce new
individuals at nodes individuals at nodes
aboveground. belowground.

Rhizome

Stolon

Tubers store carbohydrates. Thorns provide protection.

Thorn

Tuber
Leaves
Are the main photosynthetic organs of plants
Are composed of several layers for different purposes
Cuticle-on top and bottom for protection (waxy)
Epidermis-just inside the cuticle, also for protection
Mesophyll is the middle part of the leaf and consists or 2 types of cells
Pallisade cells just under the upper epidermis
Spongy cells below the palisade
Veins within the mesophyll are vascular bundles
Stomates are openings on the undersurface of leaves (on the upper
surface of water plants) that are controlled by guard cells and do
transpiration
Blade is the flattened part of the leaf (unless the leaf is a spine),
and is attached to the stem via the petiole
Modified leaves
Tendrils-long leaves that wrap around stems for anchoring (pea plants
and grape vines)
Spines-on cacti are modified to conserve water
Storage-on succulents for water
Reproductive-like kale that produce leaves that fall into the soil and
root
Bracts-are colored leaves that many mistake for petals. They surround
the flowers and attract pollinators
Figure 37-16b

Cross section of oleander leaf

Waxy cuticle on
upper surface
Epidermis of leaf is
especially thick

Palisade Vascular bundles

mesophyll
Air space
Stomata
Spongy
mesophyll

Epidermis Epidermal hairs

Stomata are located in crypts
instead of on flat leaf surface
Figure 36-20

Stoma open Stoma closed

Pore

Guard cells
Figure 36-11

Simple leaves have a Compound leaves have Doubly compound leaves are Species from very cold or
petiole and a single blade. blades divided into leaflets. large yet rarely damaged by wind hot climates have needle-like
or rain. leaves.

Blade

Petiole
Figure 36-12

Opposite leaves Whorled leaves Alternate leaves Rosette

Figure 36-14

Onion leaves store food. Aloe vera leaves store water. Pea tendrils aid in climbing.

Stem (tiny
internodes) Leaves

Poinsettia leaves attract pollinators. Pitcher plant leaves trap insects. Flowerpot plant leaves collect soil.

Leaf in
Dark cross
hood section

Flowers

Digestive
enzymes Adventitious
Leaves
roots
Plant Tissues and Specialized Cells
There are 3 main Tissue types in plants
Dermal-is the outer covering of the plant (examples are the epidermis and cuticle of the
leaf. In woody plants, periderm replaces the epidermis). Depending on where in the
plant you are looking, this can be specialized. It generally protects the plant from
disease and parasites
Vascular-Conducting tissue for carrying water and nutirents around the plant and are
made up of a variety of cell types
Water conducting specialized cells: (both types die at maturity, leaving behind tubes)
Tracheids-thin cells with tapered ends and water moves through pits in the cells so that it doesnt
have to cross secondary cell walls
Vessel elements-wide, short, and less tapered. They form vessels with perforation plates between
them for water flow
Sugar-conducting specialized cells: (alive at maturity)
Sieve tube cells-cells that lack a nucleus, ribosome, vacuole and cytoskeleton. At their ends, they
have sieve plates with pores
Companion cells-lie alongside of sieve tube cells and are connected with plasmodesmata so that the
cells nucleus, ribosomes, etc can function for both cells
Ground-Tissue that is neither dermal nor vascular and serves a variety of purposes (like
storage). Within the vascular tissue, this is usually called pith, outside of the vascular
tissue, this is called cortex
Specialized Cells within the ground tissue
Parenchyma-relatively flexible cells that do most of the plants metabolism. Some have colorless
plastids that store starch. These cells often retain the ability to grow, divide, and differentiate.
Collenchyma-these are grouped in strands or cyllinders (stings in celery), for flexible supoort without
limiting growth
Sclerenchyma-these are also for support but are rigid and cannot elongate, so they occur in regions
of the plant that have stopped growing. They produce secondary cell walls, then die, leaving a rigid
skeleton of support for the plant. Sclerids give nut shells their hardness, while fibers are long,
thin and tough (like flax for weaving into linen)
Figure 36-16

Meristematic Cross sections:

tissue
Leaf
Shoot system

Dermal tissue
system (brown)
Ground tissue
system (gray)
Stem
Vascular tissue
system (red)
Root system

Dermal tissue
system (brown)
Root
Ground tissue
system (gray)
Meristematic
Vascular tissue
tissue
system (red)
Figure 36-27-Table 36-1
Figure 36-26

Tracheids are spindle shaped Vessel elements are short and wide Tracheids and vessel elements
and have pits. and have perforations as well as pits. together in vascular tissue

Pits Perforations

Pits
Pits

Tracheids Vessel
elements

Longitudinal section Longitudinal section

Figure 36-22
In leaves, parenchyma cells function in
photosynthesis and gas exchange.

Chloroplasts

In roots, parenchyma cells function in

carbohydrate storage.

Starch
granules
Figure 36-24

Cross section of celery stalk Close-up of string, in cross section Collenchyma cells, in cross section
Figure 36-25

Fibers Sclereids

Thick secondary cell walls

Meristems and Growth
Meristems are regions of growth and either contribute to
elongation (apical meristems) or adding girth (lateral
meristems
Primary growth is growth in length, while adding girth to
the plant is called secondary growth
Vascular cambium and cork cambium are examples of lateral
meristems for secondary growth
Plant parts that grow throughout the plants life are refered
to indeterminate growth
Plant parts that stop growing when they reach a certain size
(leaves, thorns, flowers) experience determinate growth
3 life-cycle lengths
Annuals complete their life cycle in 1 year or less
Bienniels compelte their life cycle in 2 years
Perennials live many years
Figure 36-15

Apical meristem and primary Apical meristems and primary

meristems in a shoot meristems in a root

Leaf
primordia
Procambium
Apical
meristem
at tip of Protoderm
shoot
Apical
Apical Ground meristem
meristem meristem
in lateral Root cap
bud
Primary Growth of Roots
As the root pushes through the soil, it is protected by the
root cap, which secretes a slime to lubricate its passage
Just behind the root cap is the zone of cell division where
the root has an apical meristem
Above that is the zone of elongation, where cells elongate,
which is mainly responsible for root elongation
Above that is the zone of maturation, where cells begin to
specialize
Lateral roots arise from the pericycle (outermost layer
surrounding the vascular bundle
Primary tissues of roots:
Protoderm-meristem that will form the epidermal covering
Procambium-meristem that will form the vascular tissue
(stele=vascular bundle)
Ground meristem-forms the ground tissue
Figure 36-17

Lateral
root

Cellular Maturation
Zone of
Root hair

Cellular Division Cellular Elongation

Vascular tissue
Zone of

Ground tissue

Epidermal tissue
Zone of

Apical meristem

Sloughed-off
root cap cells
Root cap
Primary Growth of Shoots
The apical meristem is dome-shaped at the tip of the
terminal bud, and contains the same tissue meristems
seen in the root
This meristem is crowded b/c the internode is not yet
elongated
You can also see leaf primordia at the apical
meristem, and axillary buds that give rise to branches
Vascular bundles are arranged differrently in
monocots and dicots
In monocots, the vascular bundles are spread out
within the stem
In dicots, the vascular bundles form a ring just inside
the epidermis
Figure 36-15

Apical meristem and primary Apical meristems and primary

meristems in a shoot meristems in a root

Leaf
primordia
Procambium
Apical
meristem
at tip of Protoderm
shoot
Apical
Apical Ground meristem
meristem meristem
in lateral Root cap
bud
Figure 36-18

Cross section of a eudicot stem Cross section of a monocot stem

Epidermis

Cortex
Ground tissue
Pith

Vascular bundles
Secondary Growth
Adds diameter to the plant and is controlled by 2 meristems:
Vascular cambium and the cork cambium
Vascular cambium
Cylinder of tissue that lies between the primary vascular tissues and
adds secondary phloem and xylem
Over the years, the secondary xylem becomes the wood
Secondary phloem develops into a portion of the bark. Only the
youngest of this tissue functions in sugar transport. The oldest dies
and helps protect the plant
Cork Cambium
As the plant matures, the epidermis is shed and replaced with cells
made by this meristem
As this meristem produces cork cells, they accumulate a waxy
substance called suberin in their walls and die
The cork and cork cambium make up the periderm, which is the
outermost portion of the bark
This cambium is of fixed size, produces a set amount of cork, and then
loses the ability to divide
Figure 36-28

Lateral meristems increase the width Lateral meristems (cork cambium and vascular cambium) produce bark and wood.
of stems and roots.

Cross section of young Cork

Linden tree Periderm
Cork cambium
Phelloderm Cork cambium
3 year adds cells
primarily to
the outside
Bark

Secondary phloem

2 year Vascular cambium

Vascular
cambium adds
Secondary xylem
many cells to
Wood the inside and
some cells to
1 year Rays of parechyma the outside
cells
Figure 36-28-Table 36-2
Figure 36-29 Heartwood and sapwood have different functions.
Heartwood
provides
structural
support but
no longer
transports
water
Sapwood
includes
active water-
conducting
xylem tissue
Bark

Growth rings result from variation in cell size.

Early wood

One growth
ring

Late wood

Patterns in growth rings can tell a trees history.

Thick growth
rings before
onset of acid
rain

Thin growth
rings after
onset of acid
rain

Bark
Figure 36-00
Do roots have secondary growth?
They do, and its similar to that of
stem secondary growth
The periderm in old roots doesnt
allow water to pass, so only young
roots absorb water
Roots can also be come woody over
time
Plant Transport
Depends on the permeability of membranes for cell to
cell transport, and relies on the vascular tissue
Recall the rules for transport, osmosis and diffusion
from the cells unit
Solutes often rely on proton pumps and chemiosmosis
for transport
Scientists in the 90s began to question the idea that
osmosis across the membrane can move enough
water in plants.
This suggested the possibility that cells have water-
specific transport proteins called aquaporins for
facilitating water movement
Figure 37-22
Passive transport
Direct diffusion Channel Carrier

Electrochemical gradient
(Facilitated diffusion)
Outside
cell

Lipid
bilayer

Membrane Inside
proteins cell

Active transport
Cotransporters
Pump Symporter Antiporter
Electrochemical gradient

Outside
cell

Lipid
bilayer

ATP ADP + Pi
Inside
cell
Water Potential
Differences in water potential drive the
movement of water around the plant.
Water moves from areas of high water
potential to areas of lower water potential
Water potential=solute potential+pressure
potential
Addition of solutes lowers water potential.
Additional pressure raises water potential
At atmospheric pressure, pure waters
potential is 0.
Figure 37-1
Solute potential is the tendency of water to move by osmosis.
Solute potential inside cell Cell is placed in pure water.
and in surrounding solution Its solute potential is low
is the same. No net relative to its surroundings.
movement of water. Water moves into cell
via osmosis.
Cell Solute Pure water

Water
movement

Isotonic solution Hypotonic solution

Pressure potential is the tendency of water to move in

response to pressure.
Turgor pressure is Inside of cell
an important source
Expanding volume of cell
of pressure on
water in cells
pushes membrane out.
Turgor pressure

Plasma membrane

Cell wall

Wall pressure
Stiff cell wall pushes back with
equal and opposite force.
Outside of cell
Figure 37-3ab

Solute potentials differ. Solute and pressure

potentials differ.

Pure water Solution Pure water Solution

= 0 MPa P = 0 MPa = 0 MPa P = +1.0 MPa

S = 1.0 MPa S = 1.0 MPa

= 1.0 MPa = 0.0 MPa

Water moves left to rightfrom Water potentials are equal

area with high water potential to no net movement
area with low water potential
Figure 37-3cd
Solute potentials differ. Solute and pressure
potentials differ.

Pure Flaccid cell Pure water Turgid cell

water
= 0 MPa P = 0 MPa = 0 MPa P = +1.0 MPa
S = 1.0 MPa S = 1.0 MPa

= 1.0 MPa = 0.0 MPa

Water moves into cellfrom area Water potentials are equal

with high water potential to area no net movement
with low water potential
Figure 37-5

Loss of turgor pressure in cells leads to wilting.

Long-distance transport
Bulk Flow-movement of water
through xylem vessels and sieve
tubes (pressure driven)
Figure 37-4
Low water potential
Atmosphere : 95.2 MPa
(Changes with humidity;
usually very low)

Leaf : 0.8 MPa

(Depends on transpiration rate;
low when stomata are open)

Root : 0.6 MPa

(Medium-high)
Soil : 0.3 MPa
(High if moist;
low if extremely dry)

High water potential

Root Absorption
Root hairs, mycorrhizae and large surface area of
external cells are responsible for water and nutrient
absorption
When water is absorbed from the root hair, it moves
along the cell walls from the epidermis toward the
xylem
Symplastic movement-movement within the
cytoplasm from plasmodesmata to plasmodesmata
Apoplastic movement-movement movement between
cell walls and extracellular spaces
Before the soil solution reaches the xylem, it passes
the endodermis
Each cell comprises the Casparian strip-waxy cells
that block water passage
Figure 37-8

Water travels from root hairs to xylem via two routes. The Casparian strip blocks the apoplastic
route at the endodermis.
Blockage at
Casparian strip
Apoplastic route Apoplastic (cell walls are
within porous route impregnated
cell walls with wax)
Symplastic
route

To xylem
vessels
Symplastic route
through cells via
plasmodesmata
Cortex Endodermis Xylem vessels Endodermis
Transport of Xylem Sap
Without pumping, the sap is moved up the
plant, and some are as tall as 100 m?
The question is, is the sap pushed by the
roots or pulled by the leaves?
Root Pressure-at night, when transpiration is
low, the root continues to pump minerals into
the xylem. Water then flows in from the cortex,
pushing water upward-root pressure. This
causes guttation-water droplets on leaf blades
Transpiration-Cohesion-Tension Mechanisms-
transpiration and water cohesion pull water up
the stem
Figure 37-9
Figure 37-11
THE COHESION-TENSION THEORY
Spongy
Leaf cross section mesophyll

2 Menisci

Xylem 3 Evaporation

1
1

To atmosphere
Stoma

1. Inside a leaf, the area not occupied by cells

is filled with moist air. Water diffuses from the
inside of the leaf to the atmosphere.

4 2. As water exits the leaf, the humidty of the

Stem spaces inside the leaf drops, causing water to
xylem evaporate from the menisci that exist at the
air-water interfaces.
3. The resulting tension created at the menisci
pulls water from the surrounding mesophyll
cells, which in turn pulls water out of the xylem.

4. Tension is transmitted from water in leaf

xylem through stem all the way to root xylem
by cohesion (continuous hydrogen bonding).

Root 5. Tension pulls water from root cortex cells

cross section into root xylem.
5 Root
xylem
6. Tension pulls water from soil into roots.
6
Transpiration
Water loss through stomates on the leaf surface
Transpiration to photosynthesis ratio examines the amount
of water lost per gram of carbon dioxide converted into
organic material. In most plants, this is quite high (600:1)
Apparently, as long as the plant can pull water efficiently up
from the soil, this ratio is okay.
Xerophytes (arid weather plants) have adaptations for
reducing transpiration
Like having stomates in depressions on the undersurface of
the leaves to protect them from dry wind
Guard cell function-guard cells can take up K+ from
surrounding cells to lower their water potential and pull
water toward them, making them more turgid, and opening
the stomate.
Light stimulates these cells to take on K+
Depletion of CO2 in the leaf causes the stomata to open
Guard cells have a circadian rhythm that regulates when
theyre open, and when theyre closed
Translocation of Phloem Sap
Translocation is the term for plants moving food within
the plant
This is more sugary than xylem sap
Generally, the sap is transported by sieve tube cells to
sugar sinks within the plant (sugar storage organ)-
movement goes from source to sink
Sugars need to be loaded into the phloem from the
mesophyll of the leaf. In some cases, this is
symplastic, in others its apoplastic
What drives translocation? Pressure.
Hydrostatic pressure is greatest at the source, which
pushes the sap toward the sink. Because of the
lowering of solute potential outside of the sieve tube
on the sink end, hydrostatic pressure is low at the
sink
Figure 37-17

Sinks Flowers (also

fruits, seeds)
Translocation Young leaves
Lateral meristems

Sources Mature leaves

Translocation

Vascular tissue

Roots

Sinks
Figure 37-18
Source leaves send sugar to the same side of the plant.

14
C was applied to
this leaf

Labeled sugars were

translocated to growing
leaves on the same side
of the plant
Source leaves send sugar to tissues on the same end of
the plant.
Sink

Source

Source

Sink
Figure 37-19
Sieve-tube Companion
member cell
Longitudinal
section

Cross section

Sieve
plates

Sugar passes
vertically through
pores in the wall
between sieve-tube
members
Figure 37-20
Xylem Phloem

Companion SOURCE
cell (leaf cell)
Water

Active transport
of sucrose

Bulk flow of phloem sap

Sieve-tube members

Sugar

Water

Companion cell SINK

Xylem sap Phloem sap (root cell)
movement via movement via
transpirational pressure flow
pull
Figure 37-25

Phloem unloading into growing leaves of sugar beets Phloem unloading into roots of sugar beets
Sieve-tube Companion cell Leaf cell Sieve-tube Companion cell Root cell
member member Vacuole

Sucrose Proteins
Sucrose + other Sucrose
and
Movement along concentration gradient substrate Movement along concentration gradient
nucleic
+ acids

Tonoplast

Sucrose
Passive transport transporter Active transport
across membrane, (an ATPase) across tonoplast,
then use of ATP requiring direct
within cell indirectly use of ATP
Figure 37-21
Nutritional Requirements of Plants
Besides water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide,
plants need mineral nutrients (essential
chemical elements absorbed from the soil)
Essential nutirents are required for the
plant to grow from seed to complete its life
cycle
Macronutrients are nutrients that are required in
large amounts (there are 9)
Micronutrients are nutrients that are required in
very small amounts (there are 8 )
Nutrient deficiencies are evident in different
ways. Because of this, it is easy for botanists to
diagnose nutrient deficiencies
Figure 38-1-Table 38-1-1
Figure 38-1-Table 38-1-2
Figure 38-1-Table 38-1-3
Figure 38-2

Normal barley N deficiency P deficiency

Yellowing Stunted
of leaves growth,
dead
spots
Soil and Plant Nutrition
Soil comes from weathered rock, and over
time becomes topsoil (mixture of rock,
living organisms, and humus-decaying
matter)
Soil layers are known as horizons and are
easily visible
The most fertile soil is a loam, which
consists or sand, silt, and clay in equal
proportions-this provides for small particles
with lots of surface area for retaining water
and minerals, as well as large particles for
retaining air spaces
Figure 38-4

Wind Freezing Water Organisms Soil texture is categorized by particle size:

and (rain) (plants, lichens, Gravel Sand
thawing moss, fungi, animals,
Particle bacteria, archaea)
s
Pa (>2.0 mm) (0.022.0 mm)
rti
cl es Silt Clay

P ar
ticle
Soil formation begins when s (0.0020.02 mm) (<0.002 mm)
wind, temperature changes,
rain, and organisms break Solid rock Partic Soil
les
small particles off solid rock
Figure 38-5

Humus contains
a high density of
diverse organisms,
dead and alive
Humus
0 Plants
5
Ant

25
Earthworm
Soil depth (cm)

Protists

75 Nematode

Fungus

Bacteria and
120 Beetle grub archaea
Figure 38-7
Cations often interact with negative
charges on the surface of clay

Organic Organic matter

matter
Clay particle

Sand grain

Root hair

Clay particle

Clay particle

Sand grain

Anions usually dissolve in soil water, they are

readily available for absorption by root hairs
Figure 38-8

Cation exchange releases nutrients which are absorbed by roots or leached in heavy rains.

Clay or organic matter

Leac
Released
Uptake Water flow hing
Protons in soil water nutrients

Root hair
Soil Conservation
This is an important sustainable practice since agriculture is
not a natural state-essential elements are diverted from
chemical cycles
Fertilization and Irrigation need to be done carefully
Fertilizers-have gone from manure to commercial containing
N-P-K (ex: 10-12-8). Organic fertilizers release slowly and
dont leach as much, while commercial fertilizers leach and are
immediately available. The most important fertilizer
consideration is soil pH b/c plants cant take up minerals that
are too tightly bound to the soil particles
Secondarily, farmers need to avoid eutrophication of nearby
water supplies
Irrigation-difficult to do carefully in arid regions, where the
evaporation can make the soil too salty. Also-doing too much
diverting from rivers and streams affects the ecology of an
area
Erosion is always an issue as well. Can be caused by wind or
water. Farmers can plant windbreaks, plough across hills,
terrace, and strip crop corn with groundcover crops like alfafa
or wheat to reduce erosion
Nitrogen as a Plant Nutrient
This is the one nutrient that most puts
limits on the growth of plants.
The irony is that the atmosphere is about
80% nitrogen, but recall that plants cant
use the nitrogen from the atmosphere.
The answer to getting N is to use nitrogen-
fixing bacteria in root nodules
This may have evolved along similar lines
as the mycorrhizal relationship-another
important relationship that contributes to
plant nutrition
Figure 38-14
Nodule in cross section

Roots of
pea plant

Nodules
Figure 38-15
Root

Root hair
Cortex cells

INFECTION BY NITROGEN-FIXING BACTERIA

Root hair 1. Root hairs release a

flavonoid that attracts
rhizobia. Rhizobia move
Rhizobia into hairs.
Infection
thread 2. Rhizobia proliferate inside
root hair and cause an
infection thread to form.

3. Infection thread grows

into the cortex of the root.

4. Infection thread bursts,

releasing rhizobia inside
cortex cells.

Nodule
5. Nodule forms from
rapidly dividing cortex
cells.

Rhizobia inside vesicles,

inside infected cell

Uninfected cell
Nutritional Adaptations
Parasitism-Some plants, like
mistletoe, do photosynthesis, but use
haustoria to siphon xylem sap from
the host tree. A few, dont do
photosynthesis (this is different from
epiphytes that nourishes itself, but
grows on the surfaces of other plants)
Predation-some plants live in nutrient
poor soil and have to get essential
nutrients by preying on insects.
Figure 38-17

Epiphytes grow on trees. Water-holding tanks formed by leaves of

an epiphytic bromeliad

Tanks

Epiphytes
Figure 38-19

Mistletoe haustoria penetrate host

xylem and extract water and ions

Host xylem
Mistletoe

Host tree
Figure 38-20
Sexual Reproduction in
Angiosperms
Gametophyte develops within the anthers and ovaries
Flower is the reproductive structure, with 4 main parts:
Sepals-leaf-like structures under the petals
Petals
Stamen-male parts of the flower (contains sporangia)
Carpel-female parts of the flower (contains sporangia)
Flower types:
Complete vs. incomplete
Those that have 4 complete flower organs vs. those that dont
(ex: grasses are incomplete b/c they lack petals)
Perfect vs. imperfect
Having both stamens and carpels vs. single-sexed flowers
Monoecious vs. dioecious
Having only 1 gender of flower on a plant vs. Having both
stamenate and carpelate flowers on the same plant
Figure 40-4
Basic parts of a flower

Stigma

Anther
Carpel Style Stamen
Filament

Ovary
Petal
Receptacle Sepal

Examples of flower diversity

Figure 40-7
Monoecy Dioecy

Male
flowers

Female
flowers
Formation of Gametophytes
In order for fertilization to take place, pollen must be deposited on
the stigma of a flower. Some plants can self-fertilize, others cant.
Pollen is the male gametophyte
Within the pollen sacs (sporangia) of the anther, 2n microsporocytes go
through meiosis to produce the microspores. Each microspore divides
via mitosis to produce 2 cells: the generative cell and the tube cell. A
wall forms around these cells and this is the immature gametophyte
Embryo sac is the female gametophyte
Ovules containing the sporangia form within the walls of the ovary of
the plant. The megaspore forms from a megasporocyte within the
sporangium that goes through meiosis. Most of the time, only 1
megaspore survives.
The megaspore grows, dividing by mitosis 3x, resulting in 1 large cell
with 8 haploid nuclei. Membranes partition this mass into a multi-celled
embryo sac, which is the female gametophyte. This results in a 2-sided
structure
On one side, there are 3 cells: the egg, and 2 synergids
On the other side, there are 3 antipodal cells
The leftover nuclei are not partitioned but remain in the middle
Figure 40-9

FORMATION OF MALE GAMETOPHYTE

Microsporangium Pollen grain
(male gametophyte
Microsporocyte Microspores red dots are haploid nuclei)
(red dot is a (red dots are
diploid nucleus) haploid nuclei) Generative cell Tube cell Tough
outer
coat

(Each microspore)

Anther
Filament 1. Many microsporocytes 2. A microsporocyte divides 3. The two resulting cells
Stamen reside inside anther. Here, by meiosis, resulting in four mature into a single pollen
the red dot represents a microspores. Each microspore grain containing an immature
diploid nucleus. divides once by mitosis, forming male gametophyte. The
the tube cell and generative cell. generative cell will later
divide to form sperm.
Figure 40-8

FORMATION OF FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE Surviving megaspore Embryo sac

Stigma (red dot is a (female gametophyte
Ovule haploid nucleus) red dots are haploid nuclei)
Polar
Megasporangium nuclei (n)

Style

Ovary Megasporocyte Degenerating Egg (n)

(red dot is a megaspores
diploid nucleus) Micropyle
Carpel 1. The megasporocyte 2. Three of the 3. The surviving 4. The eight haploid
inside the ovule megaspores megaspore divides nuclei rearrange; cell
undergoes meiosis, degenerate. by mitosis to form walls form to yield seven
resulting in four eight haploid nuclei. cells. (The large central
megasporoes. cell has two nuclei.)
Pollination
Once the pollen lands on the stigma, the
tube cells produce a tube that extends
down the style toward the ovule.
The generative cell divides by mitosis to
form 2 sperm cells that move down the
tube.
Sperm enter the ovary via the micropyle, a
gap in the integument, and do double
fertilization
One sperm fertilizes the egg to become the
zygote
The other sperm combines with the polar nuclei
to form a triploid nucleus, which will give rise to
the endosperm
Figure 40-14-1

POLLEN TUBE GROWTH AND FERTILIZATION

Pollen Stigma
grain

Tube-cell Pollen tube

nucleus Sperm
Style

Ovary

1. Pollen grain germinates 2. The tube-cell nucleus

on the stigma. Pollen moves into pollen tube,
tube begins growing and the generative cell
down the style. nucleus divides by mitosis
to form two sperm in
pollen tube.
Figure 40-14-2

POLLEN TUBE GROWTH AND FERTILIZATION

Double
fertilization

Primary
endosperm
nucleus
(3n)

Synergid
Zygote
Micropyle (2n)

3. Pollen tube completes 4. One sperm unites with

growth toward the egg by egg to form zygote.
passing through micropyle The other fuses with the
and discharging the two two polar nuclei to form
sperm into a cell adjacent endosperm (nutrient tissue).
to egg.
Why cant some flowers self-
fertilize?
This appears to be analogous to the
immune response of animals.
In the animal immune system, though, non-self
is rejected. In plants, self is rejected.
S genes (self) have as many as 50 different
alleles that occur at this locus. If a pollen
grain containing a like allele lands on the
style, it cannot grow a pollen tube.
Sometimes, this is due to RNases in the style
that attack the RNA of a self pollen tube
Sporophytic self-incompatibility exhists when the
cells of the style block the pollen tube
Figure 40-10

S1S2 pollen parent: both S

proteins found on pollen wall

Stigma

Pollen tubes form

Pollen if both S genes of
tubes pollen parent are unlike
Style those of carpels

Genotypes of carpels
Seed Devolpment
The double-fertilized ovule will become the seed
Endosperm development begins first with the triploid cell in
the middle. It goes through mitosis to form a super cell
that subdivides into many cells containing the endosperm
The Embryo Development is more complicated:
The first mitotic division creates a basal cell, which gives rise
to a thread of cells that will anchor the embryo called the
suspensor, and a terminal cell, which gives rise to most of the
embryo
The suspensor transfers nutrients from the adult plant to the
embryo (like an umbillical cord)
The terminal cell continues to divide to form the proembryo,
with bumps that will become the cotyledons.
The embryo then elongates, with an apical meristem forming
at the cotyledon end
The basal cell forms the root meristem.
The seed stockpiles proteins, oils and starch for germination
Figure 40-15

EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT AND SEED MATURATION

Seed
Protoderm Epidermis
Shoot apical
Terminal Ground Ground meristem
cell meristem tissue
Cotyledons
(seed leaves)
Procambium Vascular Hypocotyl
Basal tissue (seed stem)
cell
Radicle
Progenitor Adult
cells tissues Seed coat
Zygote
1. Zygote divides 2. The two daughter 3. The cell mass differentiates 4. The three tissue types mature
into two daughter cells divide into a into progenitors of the three into root and shoot systems. The
cells. cell mass and a adult tissues. long axis of the mature embryo
string of single cells. becomes apparent.
The mature seed
Contains the following structures:
Seed coat-was the integument of the
ovule and protects the embryo from
drying out
Cotyledons are the embryonic leaves
(in dicots, these contain the endosperm)
Radicle is the embryonic root
Hypocotyl (under cotyledons)
Epicodyl-between radical and hypootyl
Figure 40-16

Bean seed Corn seed

(typical eudicot) (typical monocot)

Seed coat

Endosperm

Cotyledons

Embryonic
stem and root
Fruit development
The plant ovary becomes the fruit.
After pollination, hormones trigger
the ovary to grow.
The pericarp becomes the thickened
wall of the ovary
Many types of fruits exist, depending
on how the ovary develops
Figure 40-18

Pericarp
Fruit

Seeds
Figure 40-17
Flower Developing fruit Ripe fruit
Simple fruit
(Apricot)

Develops from a
single flower with
one carpel or
fused carpels

Aggregate fruit
(Raspberry)

Develops from a
single flower with
many separate
carpels

Multiple fruit
(Pineapple)

Develops from
many flowers
with many
carpels
Seed Germination
Dormancy has its advantages
Seed dispersal
Ability to wait for the best conditions
When the seed imbibes (takes in water),
enzymes begin digest the endosperm and
transfer the nutrients to the embryo
There are several ways the embryo can
emerge, but light seems to be the cue that
tells the embryo that its broken ground.
Figure 40-20
Beans are eudicots with cotyledons that emerge aboveground. Peas are eudicots with cotyledons that remain belowground.

Leaf

Seed coat
Epicotyl Young shoot

Epicotyl
Hypocotyl Hypocotyl Cotyledons
Cotyledons
Seed coat Epicotyl

Hypocotyl

Radicle Lateral
Radicle Primary Lateral roots
root roots

Corn is a monocot with a Onion is a monocot with a

cotyledon that remains cotyledon that emerges
belowground. aboveground.

Leaf
Seed
coat

Cotyledon

First
First leaf leaf
Coleoptile Coleoptile
Cotyledon

Bulb

Radicle Primary Adventitious Primary Roots

root roots root
Asexual reproduction
Vegetative reproduction-process by which
plants can clone themselves or be cloned
Several methods by which this can occur:
Fragmentation-separating of a parent
Cuttings
Adventitious roots becoming new shoot systems
Leaflets fragmenting
Apomixis-production of unfertilized seeds
Lab Cloning-tissue cut from a plant is cultured
on a medium containing nutrients and hormones
Monoculture-crops are genetically identical
(ensures uniform growth and maturity).
However, monoculture is problematic from the
standpoint of disease and parasitism
Plant Development Mechanisms
Growth vs. Morphogenesis-getting bigger vs
maturation of form
Cytoskeleton guides the geometry of the cell
Unlike what occurs in animal development, plant cells
cannot migrate within organs as the organ develops
Orientation of cell division and expansion are
therefore very important
The plane of cell division is controled by a preprohase
band of microtubules in the center of the cell
Control of the direction of cellular expansion is
achieved by acids that the cell secretes in certain
places. These acids break bonds within the cellulose
microfibrils in the cell wall, enabling it to stretch
Gene expression controls cellular differentiation
Unlike with animal cells, plants keep the majority of
their genome in tact for their entire lives. This allows
for culturing flexibility