Scanning Probe Microscopy

(SPM)
 Scanning Probe Microscopy
(SPM)
It consists of a family of microscopy forms where a sharp
probe is scanned across a surface and some probe-
sample interaction or interactions are monitored

The two primary forms of SPM consist of:

Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM)
Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)
(also called Scanning Force Microscopy (SFM))
There are 3 primary modes of AFM:
Contact Mode AFM
Non-contact Mode AFM
Tapping Mode AFM
 Other forms of SPM
Lateral Force Microscopy (LFM)
Force Modulation Microscopy
Magnetic Force Microscopy (MFM)
Electric Force Microscopy (EFM)
Surface Potential Microscopy
Phase Imaging
Force Volume
Electrochemical STM & AFM (ECM)
Scanning Capacitance Microscopy (SCM)
Scanning Thermal Microscopy (SThM)
Near-field Scanning Optical Microscopy (NSOM or SNOM)
Photon Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (PSTM)
Ballistic Electron Emission Microscopy (BEEM)
 History
Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM):
Developed in 1982 by Binning, Rohrer, Gerber, and Weibel at IBM in
Zurich, Switzerland.
Binning and Rohrer won the Nobel Prize in Physics for this
invention in 1986.

Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)

Developed in 1986 by Binning, Quate, and Gerber as a
collaboration between IBM and Stanford University.
 Basic Components of SPM
A Control System connected to a
Microscope System
Control System: Computer, Control Monitor,
Display Monitor, SPM Control electronics and Software.
Microscope System: A sample stage, Piezo-
electronic scanner and SPM electronics
STM STM is based on the fact
that the tunneling current
between a conductive tip
and sample is
exponentially dependent
on their separation.
I ~ Ve cd
I = Tunneling current
V = Bias voltage between tip
and sample
c = constant
d = tip-sample separation
distance
 As the tip scans the sample surface, it encounters sample
features of different heights, resulting in an exponential
change in the tunneling current.
A feedback loop is used to maintain a constant tunneling
current during scanning by vertically moving the scanner
at each (x,y) data point until a setpoint current is reached.
The vertical position of the scanner at each (x,y) data
point is stored by the computer to form the topographic
image of the sample surface.
This technique is typically limited to conductive and
semiconducting surfaces
Applications
Atomic resolution imaging (STM is the only technique which detects
atomic-scale defects)
Electrochemical STM
Scanning Tunneling Spectroscopy
Low-current imaging of poorly conductive samples
 Scanners
SPM scanners are made from piezoelectric
material, which expands and contracts
proportionally to an applied voltage.
Piezoelectric Material: How They Work

Whether they elongate or contract depends

upon the polarity of the voltage applied.
 Piezoelectric Scanners: How They Work
The scanner is constructed by combining independently operated
piezo electrodes for X, Y, & Z into a single tube, forming a
scanner which can manipulate samples and probes with extreme
precision in 3 dimensions.

Typical scanner piezo tube and X-Y-Z configurations. AC Signals applied to conductive areas of
the tube create piezo movement along the three major axes.
 AC voltages applied to the different electrodes of the
piezoelectric scanner produce a scanning raster motion in X
and Y. There are two segments of the piezoelectric crystal for X
(X & X) and Y (Y & Y).

Waveforms applied to the piezo electrodes during a raster scan with the X axis
designated as the fast axis (Scan Angle = 0)
Piezoelectric Scanners: Hysteresis and Aging
Hysteresis
Because of differences in the material properties
and dimensions of each piezoelectric element, each
scanner responds differently to an applied voltage.
This response is conveniently measured in terms of
sensitivity, a ratio of piezo movement-to-piezo
voltage, i.e., how far the piezo extends or contracts
per applied volt.
Sensitivity is not a linear relationship with respect to
scan size. Because piezo scanners exhibit more
sensitivity (i.e., more movement per volt) at the end
of a scan line than at the beginning, the relationship
of movement vs. applied voltage is nonlinear.
Piezoelectric Scanners: Hysteresis and Aging
This causes the forward and reverse scan directions to behave differently
and display hysteresis between the two scan directions.

The effect of nonlinearity and hysteresis can be seen from the curve above. As the piezo
extends and retracts throughout its full range, it moves less per applied volt at the beginning of
the extension than near the end. The same is true when the piezo is retracting - the piezo
moves less per applied volt at the beginning of its extension than near the end.
 100mm x 100mm scans in the forward (trace) and reverse (retrace)
directions of a two dimensional 10mm pitch grating without linearity
correction. Both scans are in the down direction. Notice the differences in
the spacing, size, and shape of the pits between the bottom and the top of
each image. The effect of the hysteresis loop on each scan direction is
demonstrated.
 This nonlinear relationship is corrected during the calibration
routine by applying a nonlinear voltage in real-time to produce
a linear scan in X and Y in both trace and retrace scan
directions. (U.S. Pat. #5,051,646)

Nonlinear waveform (solid line) applied to the piezo electrodes to produce linear
scanner movement. The unaltered triangular waveform (dashed line) is included for
reference.
 100m x 100m scan of the same two-dimensional 10m pitch calibration grating with a
nonlinear scan voltage. Notice the equal spacing between all pits and the consistent shape
and size of pits throughout the image.
Aging
The sensitivity of piezoelectric materials decreases exponentially with
operation time.
This causes most of the change in the sensitivity to occur at the
beginning of a scanner's life

As the scanner ages, the sensitivity will change less with time, and will
eventually get to the point where it very seldom needs recalibrating.
 Operating modes
Static mode
Repulsive forces
Attractive forces

contact non-contact

Dynamic mode

F0 cos(t) elasticity ultrasonic intermittent non-contact

contact
Contact Mode AFM
 Contact mode AFM operates by scanning a tip attached to the end of a
cantilever across the sample surface while monitoring the change in
cantilever deflection with a split photodiode detector.
The tip contacts the surface through the adsorbed fluid layer on the
sample surface.
A feedback loop maintains a constant deflection between the cantilever
and the sample by vertically
moving the scanner at each (x,y) data point to maintain a "setpoint"
deflection.
By maintaining a constant cantilever deflection, the force between the tip
and the sample remains constant.
The force is calculated from Hooke's Law: F= - kx where
F = Force
k = spring constant
x = cantilever deflection.
Force constants usually range from 0.01 to 1.0 N/m, resulting in forces
ranging from nN to N in an ambient atmosphere.
The distance the scanner moves vertically at each (x,y) data point is
stored by the computer to form the topographic image of the
sample surface.
Operation can take place in ambient and liquid environments.
Non-contact Mode AFM
 The cantilever is oscillated at a frequency which is
slightly above the cantilevers resonance frequency
typically with an amplitude of a few nanometers
(<10nm), in order to obtain an AC signal from the
cantilever.
The tip does not contact the sample surface, but
oscillates above the adsorbed fluid layer on the surface
during scanning
The cantilever's resonant frequency is decreased by the
van der Waals forces, which extend from 1nm to 10nm
above the adsorbed fluid layer, and by other long range
forces which extend above the surface.
The feedback loop maintains a constant oscillation
amplitude or frequency by vertically moving the scanner
at each (x,y) data point until a "setpoint" amplitude or
frequency is reached.
The distance the scanner moves vertically at each (x,y)
data point is stored by the computer to form the
topographic image of the sample surface.
Tapping Mode AFM
 TappingMode AFM operates by scanning a tip attached to the end of an
oscillating cantilever across the sample surface.
The cantilever is oscillated at or near its resonance frequency with an
amplitude ranging typically from 20nm to 100nm. The frequency of
oscillation can be at or on either side of the resonant frequency.
The tip lightly taps on the sample surface during scanning, contacting the
surface at the bottom of its swing.
The feedback loop maintains a constant oscillation amplitude by
maintaining a constant RMS of the oscillation signal acquired by the split
photodiode detector.
The vertical position of the scanner at each (x,y) data point in order to
maintain a constant "setpoint amplitude is stored by the computer to form
the topographic image of the sample surface.
By maintaining a constant oscillation amplitude, a constant tip-sample
interaction is maintained during imaging.
Operation can take place in ambient and liquid environments. In liquid, the
oscillation need not be at the cantilever resonance.
When imaging in air, the typical amplitude of the oscillation allows the tip to
contact the surface through the adsorbed fluid layer without getting stuck.
 Atomic Force Microscopy-
Beam Deflection Detection
 Laser light from a solid state diode is reflected off the back of
the cantilever and collected by a position sensitive detector
(PSD) consisting of two closely spaced photodiodes whose
output signal is collected by a differential amplifier.
Angular displacement of cantilever results in one photodiode
collecting more light than the other photodiode, producing an
output signal (the difference between the photodiode signals
normalized by their sum) which is proportional to the
deflection of the cantilever.
It detects cantilever deflections <1 (thermal noise limited).
Feedback Loop- Contact Mode
Sample-probe boundary layers
 Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)
Nanoindenting /Scratching
Contact Mode AFM
TappingMode AFM
Torsional Resonance Mode AFM
Phase Imaging
Lateral Force Microscopy (LFM)
Magnetic Force Microscopy (MFM)
Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM)
Force Modulation
Electric Force Microscopy (EFM)
Surface Potential Microscopy
Force-Distance and Force-Volume
Measurements
Electrochemical Microscopy (ECSTM
and ECAFM)
LiftMode