SONET/SDH

Introduction
The evolution of the optical fiber to' a highspeed, low cost
transmission medium led to the Synchronous Optical Network
(SONET) standard in the United States and the Synchronous
Digital Hierarchy (SDH) in Europe.
Fiber had already been proven as a transmission medium in
precursor fiber systems .
Since 1980s, SONET and SDH have almost replaced all
longhaul copper cable and thousands of miles of new fiber are
being installed each year.
The optical fiber has responded to an unexpected increase in
traffic demand and the muchtouted "superhighway" is history in
the making.
 WHAT ARE SONET AND SDH?

SONET is a set of standard interfaces in an optical synchronous

network of elements (NE) that conform to these interfaces.
SONET interfaces define all layers, from the physical to the
application layer.
SONET is a synchronous network.
SDH is also a synchronous network with optical interfaces.
SDH is a set of standard interfaces in a network of elements that
conform to these interfaces.
Like SONET SDH interfaces define all layers, from the physical
to the application layer.
It seems that SONET and SDH are identical.
 systems and networks are being developed that can
transport any type of traffic.
Voice, video data, Internet, and data from LANs,
MANS, and WANs will be transported over a SONET
or a SDH Network.
The SONET network is also able to transport
asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) payloads.
These systems, called broadband, can manage a very
large aggregate bandwidth or traffic.
SONET/SDH services
 Similarities between SONET/SDH
Bit rates and frame format organization
Frame synchronization schemes

Multiplexing and de-multiplexing rules

Error control
 Differences
The definition of overhead bytes is very similar, but
some variations have been introduced to
accommodate differences between U.S. and European
communications nodes and networks.
The SDH photonic interface specifies more
parameters than SONET.
SONET and SDH standards have enough minor
technical and linguistic differences (i.e., terminology)
to add complexity (and cost) in their design
[hardware, software (HW, SW)].
 Differences
Synchronous transport signal (STS) versus
synchronous transport module (STM), e.g.,
STS1, STS3, STS12, STS48 versus
STM1, STM4, STM16, respectively
Synchronous payload envelope (SPE) versus

virtual container (VC)

Virtual tributary (VT) versus tributary unit

(TU)
 SONET and SDH advantages
Therefore, networks and systems that offer low cost per bit per
kilometer are very critical in communications.
SONET and SDH advantages
Reduced cost: a. It lowers operations cost. b. It has the same interface for
all vendors.
Integrated network elements: a. It allows for multivendor internetworking.
b. It has enhanced network element management.
Remote operations capabilities: It is remotely provisioned, tested, in
ventoried, customized, and reconfigured.
It offers network survivability features.
It is compatible with legacy and future networks.
 Rates
SONET and SDH rates are defined in the range of
51.859953.28 Mbps (almost 10 Gbps) and higher
rates, at 40 Gbps, are also under study.
When the SONET signal is in its electrical nature, it
is known as synchronous transport signal level N
(STSN).
The SDH equivalent is called synchronous transport
module level N (STMN). After its conversion into
optical pulses, it is known as optical carrier level N
(OCN).
Rates
 WHY USE SONET/SDH?
The basic differentiator between SONET/SDH and
traditional (copper) networks is the transmission
medium, the glass fiber versus the copper wire.
Why is glass fiber better than copper wire?
Higher transmission reliability: Glass fiber is not as
susceptible to radio frequency or electromagnetic
interference (RFI, EMI) as copper wire unless it is shielded
and well grounded.
Lower bit error rate (BER). Unlike electrical signals in
copper cables, light signals transmitted along a bundle of
fibers do not interact. This results in lower inter-symbol
errors and thus fewer transmission errors.
 Why SONET/SDH? (cont.)
Higher bandwidth per fiber: A single strand of glass fiber
can pass more than 1,000,000 times information than
copper wire can. This enables very high capacity systems at
lower cost per megabytes per second.
Fiber can transmit without repeaters at longer distances as
compared with copper: This simplifies maintenance and
lowers operation cost (per megabytes per second).
Fiber yields thinner cable (per megahertz or gigahertz
bandwidth) than copper.
SONET/SDH is based on standards, which enables
multivendor compatibility and interoperability.
 OPTICAL COMPONENTS
THE OPTICAL TRANSMITTER
The optical transmitter is a transducer that converts
electrical pulses to optical pulses.
The transmitter is characterized by:
an optical power (the higher the better),
a rise time (the shorter the better),

a central (nominal) wavelength (the closer centered the

better), and
a range wavelength minimum/maximum that is

generated (the closer these two numbers are, the better).

 THE RECEIVER
The optical receiver is a transducer that converts
optical pulses to electrical ones.
However, the response times of these technologies are
very different.
For multimegabit rates, detectors must have high
optical power sensitivity, very fast response time (fast
rise and fall times), and a desirable response to a
range of wavelengths that matches the range of
transmitted wavelengths.
 SONET/SDH
The SONET/SDH network consists of nodes or
network elements (NEs) that are interconnected with
fiber cable
 SONET/SDH
SONET NEs may receive signals from a variety of
facilities such as DS1, DS3, ATM, Internet, and
LAN/MAN/WAN.
They also may receive signals from a variety of
network topologies such as rings or trees, for example
a LAN at 10 Mbps,100 Mbps, or higher bit rates.
However, SONET NEs must have a proper interface
to convert (or emulate) the incoming data format into
the SONET format.
SONET<->SDH
 Network topology
In general, networks fall into three topologies: tree,
ring, and mesh .
SONET/SDH networks are based on the ring topology.
 HIERARCHICAL PROCESS
Any type of nonSONET signal may be transformed into SONET
following a hierarchical process.
From a highlevel viewpoint, this process starts with segmenting
the signal and mapping the segments in small containers known
as virtual tributaries (VTs).
Once the VTs have been filled with segmented payloads, they are
grouped in larger containers that are known as groups, and these
are mapped in what is called a SONET frame.
Many contiguous frames entail the SONET signal, which is
transmitted via an electricaltooptical transducer, or the optical
transmitter, over the OCN fiber (Figure 6.3).
In SDH, the same process follows. However, virtual tributaries
are called tributary units (TUs) and the groups are called
tributary unit groups (TUGS); we will see more of this later.
 BROADBAND
SERVICES AND RATES
Each VT (or TU) type or SONET (SDH)
frame, although of a different bit capacity, is
transmitted within 125 us.
Consequently, the number of bits transmitted

per second, or the bit rate, varies. Table 6.1

presents the effective bit rates of VTs (or TU)
and the actual STSN bit rates.
SONET Hierarchical
 A SONET/SDH frame is transmitted from an end user through one or more
nodes in the network to eventually reach another end user.
As information moves from node to node, certain operations take place to
assure the deliverability and integrity of the signal.
This means that additional information (bits), or overhead bits, must be
added to the sending signal to be used for network administration
purposes.
This is equivalent to a letter that has an address on it, and is packed in a
post office bag on which additional information (a label) is added; this bag
may also be enclosed in a larger container with more labels on it.
This overhead information is transparent to the end user; that is, it is not
delivered as the tags are not delivered with the letter. In addition, the
overhead has been organized hierarchically in the following administrative
sectional responsibilities (Figure 6.4):
SONET Layers
 SONET Layers
The path deals with overhead added at transmitting
pathterminating equipment (PTE), and it is read by the
receiving PTE. Path information is not checked or altered by
intermediate equipment.
The line deals with overhead added by the transmitting
lineterminating equipment (LTE) to be used by the receiving
LTE. At the edges of the network, where there are no LTEs,
PTEs play the role of LTEs.
The section deals with overhead added by equipment
terminating a physical segment of the transmission facility.
Thus, a segment between two repeaters, or an LTE and a
repeater, or an PTE and a repeater, or an LTE and an LTE
without repeaters, is also a section.
 SONET Layers
Photonic layer
Physical layer of the OSI model
Section layer
Movement of a signal across a section
Framing, Scrambling, Error monitoring
Line layer
Movement of a signal between two multiplexers
Synchronization, Multiplexing
Path layer
Movement of a signal between two STS multiplexers
End-to-end data transport
Device-Layer Relationship
Data Encapsulation in SONET
 STS1
SONET frame is a twodimensional matrix of 9
rowby90column bytes. In SONET, this is known as an STS1
frame.
The first 3 columns of the STS1 frame contain the transport
overhead, which is overhead pertaining to section and line.
The byte capacity contained from the fourth column (included)
to the last is called a synchronous payload envelope (SPE).
The fourth column of the STS1 frame (or the first of the SPE)
contains path overhead information.
Two columns in the SPE (columns 30 and 59 of the STS1),
known as fixed stuff, do not contain any information.
The actual payload capacity is obtained from the space SPE by
subtracting 3 columns, the path and the two fixedstuff columns.
That is, a total of 84 columns (or 756 bytes) are used for payload,
or 48.384 Mbps effective bit rate.
STS-1
STS-1 Frame Overheads
 STS-1
The SPE consists of 87 columns and 9 rows,
or 783 bytes.
The first column (9 bytes) of the SPE is

allocated for the STS path overhead.

Columns 30 and 59, known as fixed stuff, do

not contain any actual payload. The 756 bytes

in the 84 columns are designated as the STS 1
payload capacity.
 SDH AU3
SDH does not specify a frame similar to SONET STS1.
However, it specifies a payload container as small as the
SONET SPE.
The smallest SDH payload container is visualized as a
twodimensional matrix of 9 rows by 87 columns. This is
known as virtual container 3 (VC3).
The VC3 also contains a column for path overhead, called the
VC3 path overhead (VC3 POH), and two fixedstuff
columns.
Thus, the actual payload capacity in a VC3 is 84 columns (or
756 bytes), similar to the SONET case.
 AU-3
At the VC3 and in the fourth row, three
additional bytes are added for the VC 3
pointer (Hl, H2, and H3). The end result, VC 3
and the pointer, comprises the administrative
unit level 3 (AU3). When three such AU3's
are byte multiplexed, the end result will be the
administrative unit group (AUG).
 TRANSMITTING AN STS1
Consider that an STS1 frame needs to be
transmitted one bit at a time over a transmitting
(optical) facility. The question is: How is this done?
 Therefore, a method is required to map the
SPE in an STS1 frame with the minimum
possible delay. This is accomplished with the
floating SPE technique.
 Similarly, in order that we can visualize how the
floating SPE is mapped in a SONET frame, consider
that a received SPE is folding row wise for all nine
rows.
 STS-1 Frame
Section Overhead
STS-1 Frame: Line Overhead
Payload Pointers
STS-1 Frame: Path Overhead
STS-n
STS Multiplexing
ATM in an STS-3 Envelope