LOGIC

Module 1
SIMPLE APPREHENSION:
Ideas and Terms
 Simple Apprehension:
IDEAS and TERMS
Meaning of Idea and Term
Logical Qualities of Terms
Comprehension
Extension
Relationship of Comprehension & Extension
Classification of Terms
According to Comprehension
Univocal
Equivocal
Analogous
According to Extension
Universal
Particular
Singular
 Meaning of Idea and Term
While reasoning or inference is the subject
matter of Logic, other operations of the mind
must be taken into account. Reasoning involves
judgment, the act of affirming or denying ideas.
Similarly, inference as a language expression of
reasoning, is composed of propositions.
Propositions, in turn, involves terms.
Our study of Logic will follow the natural division
in terms of the operation of the intellect
corresponding to their language expression as
shown here:
 MENTAL LANGUAGE
OPERATION EXPRESSION
SIMPLE TERM
APPREHENSION

JUDGMENT PROPOSITION

REASONING OR INFERENCE OR
THINKING ARGUMENT
 The process of forming ideas of things will help us learn
and understand the nature of the first operation of the
mind, its thought-product and its expression in language.
To illustrate:

Knowing Operation Product Language

powers expression
External Sensation Sense image
senses
Internal Imagination Phantasm
senses
Intellect Simple Idea Term
Apprehension
 Simple apprehension the mind grasps the
general meaning of an object. What results is an
idea or concept.
Idea a mental image of an object. Once man
desires to communicate his ideas to other men,
he verbalizes the idea with a word, phrase or
term.
Term the word or phrase by which we express
our idea.
A term may be defined as a word or phrase
which serves as a conventional sign of an idea.
object idea term
 SIMPLE APPREHENSION
IDEA a mental image of an object.
TERM a word or phrase by which the
idea is expressed
Ideas and terms are correlated to one
another. One cannot talk of ideas without
using terms. Also, there are no terms
which did not exist first in the mind in the
form of ideas.
LOGICAL QUALITIES
OF TERMS
Two fundamental
qualities or properties:
a. Comprehension
b. Extension
 comprehensi
Comprehension
on
that property of a term
(idea) which is the sum of the characteristic
notes of an idea signified by the term.
We understand the meaning, signification, or
thought-content of an idea or term;
It tells us what the idea or term implies;
What essential attributes it contains in itself,
what information it has concerning the thing it
represents;
It gives the content of a term.
 b. extension
Extension that property of a term (idea)
which refers to the subjects or things to which
the term may be applied.
Absolute
Functional = universal, particular, singular
Expresses the application of this content to the
individuals and groups in which it is found.
It refers to all things to which a term applies; it
shows us how and in how many objects the idea
is realized.
 RELATIONSHIP OF COMPREHENSION AND EXTENSION
EXTENSION

SPIRIT Substance Spirit Mineral Plant Brute Man

MINERAL Substance material Mineral Plant Brute Man

PLANT Substance material living Plant Brute Man

ANIMAL Substance material living sentient Brute Man

MAN Substance material living sentient rational Man

COMPREHENSION

Not only are comprehension and extension are correlative; they have an
inverse relation as well. As the intelligible contents of a term increase, the
subjects to which it may be applied decrease, and vice-versa.
 CLASSIFICATION OF
TERMS
According to comprehension
Univocal
Equivocal
Analogous
According to extension
Universal
Particular
Singular
 According to
comprehension
Univocal term a term used for a number of
different things with exactly the same meaning.
Flower is univocal when it is applied to 2 or
more things in the same way, i.e. sampaguita,
camia, rose, etc. Grain is univocal when applied
to sugar, sand, salt, rice, etc.
For example:
A ring is a piece of jewelry, so is a necklace.
Some metals like gold, lead, silver, and copper are
mined in the Philippines.
 According to
comprehension
Equivocal term used for a number of things
with an entirely different meaning.
ruler is an equivocal term because it may mean
either as a measure which is 12 inches long or
a head of state.
For example:
Nora deposits her money in a bank located by the
river bank.
While the groom is putting the ring on his brides
finger, the church bells ring.
 According to
comprehension
Analogous term a term used for a number of things
with partly the same and partly different meanings.
mother may be applied to a female parent, to a nun, to a
country, or to any woman caring for a child without
necessarily being a parent.
For example:
Marcia mothers an orphan.
Jesus arms were nailed to the arms of the cross.
His father, who is the head of the family, also heads the family
business.
Logic is a tool for reasoning; a hoe is a tool for gardening.
Our bishop shepherds his diocese, as a herdsman shepherds his
flock.
 According to
Extension
Universal term stands for each or for all
individuals to which it may be applied.
The standard quantifiers for universal terms are:
all, each, every, no anything, everybody, any
and other similar words mean ALL.
For example:
Every forest has wild animals.
All men are equal.
No one is above the law.
 According to
Extension
Particular term stands for an indefinite
individual or group.
Quantifier: some few, many, most,
majority
For example:
Some students are intelligent.
Most immigrants in Cavite are from the
southern province.
 According to
Extension
Singular term stands for a definitely
designated individual or group.
All proper names, definite descriptions,
demonstrative pronouns (this, that, those,
these), superlatives, collective nouns, restrictive
qualifications (the inventor of the telephone).
For example:
The author of bamboo dancers is NVM Gonzales.
That politician is a Caviteo.
These rooms are occupied.
 SUMMARY
The formation of ideas in the mind consists of different stages,
such as sensation, imagination, and simple apprehension.
Through simple apprehension, the intellect gets the meaning or
the nature of objects and produces an image in the mind which is
called an idea.
An idea is the mental representation of objects in reality.
A term is the language expression of idea. It is a word or phrase
which serves as a conventional sign of an idea.
A term has two properties: comprehension and extension.
The sum-total of all the intelligible notes of an idea signified by a
term is known as comprehension. The subjects to which the
term is applied is its extension.
Terms are classified according to comprehension as univocal,
equivocal and analogous.
The extension of a term is classified into two types: absolute
and functional extension. Terms according to functional
extension, are either singular, universal or particular.
Teach a child WHAT to THINK and you make him
a slave of knowledge;
But, teach a child HOW to THINK and you make
knowledge his slave.
Module 2: JUDGMENTS
AND PROPOSITIONS

Prepared by Mr. Roland Lorenzo M. Ruben

Philosophy section, SSD
De La Salle University - Dasmarias
 1. GENERAL NOTIONS
That actual process that transpires in the mind to form a
judgment and a proposition may be outlined as follows:
1st, the mind has ideas or concepts of things;
2nd, these ideas are verbally expressed through the use
of terms;
3rd, the mind sees certain relationships existing
between these ideas or terms;
4th, the mind asserts the relation of affirming, or
denying of these ideas or terms;
5th, we communicate the assertions by means of
language, hence by means of propositions.
Judgment a mental operation by which the mind affirms or
denies anything whatsoever.
Proposition a declarative sentence which expresses a
relation of affirmation or denial between terms.

A proposition, being a declarative sentence,

expresses either truth or falsity.
Truth is independent of the mind. Truth lies in the
conformity of the judgment to reality.
Thus, a proposition is true if our assertion
coincides with reality and false, if it does not
coincide with reality.
2. DIVISIONS OF PROPOSITIONS
That which is affirmed or denied in a proposition
refers to a relation between two terms. This
relation is of 2 kinds:
1st, a relationship of affirming or denying
something;
2nd, a relation of dependence, opposition or
similarity.
These give rise to 2 fundamental divisions of a
proposition:
1. Categorical propositions
2. Hypothetical propositions
3. CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS
Categorical proposition a kind of proposition in which
the predicate is either affirmed or denied of a subject.
It consists of 4 component parts: Quantifier [Q], Subject [S],
Copula [C], Predicate [P]. Ex: All heroes are/are not
courageous.
Quantifier = indicates the degree of universality
(quantity) of the subject. [Universal and Particular]
Subject = the term about which something is either
affirmed or denied.
Copula = that which expresses an affirmation or denial;
linking verb [affirmative or negative].
Predicate = that term which is either affirmed or denied
of the subject.
3. CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS
Categorical proposition a kind of proposition in which
the predicate is either affirmed or denied of a subject.
It consists of 4 component parts: Quantifier [Q], Subject
[S], Copula [C], Predicate [P]. Ex: Heroes are/are not
courageous.

QUANTIFIER SUBJECT COPULA PREDICATE

All, every, any, no That about am, are, is, That which
one, some, few, which am not, are is
most, many, not not, is not
all, etc.
 4. KINDS OF CATEGORICAL
PROPOSITIONS
Every categorical proposition has the following properties:

Quantity = expresses the number of objects or

individuals to which the proposition is applied. It refers to
the extension of the subject term, its whole extension or
only a part of it. Thus, the quantity or extension of the
subject term determines the quantity of the proposition.
[Universal & Particular]

Quality = establishes the kind of relation asserted

between the predicate and the subject of a proposition. This
relation is either affirmative or negative. It is the copula who
determines whether the predicate is affirmed or denied of
the subject. [Affirmative & Negative]
 a. Quantity
1) Universal proposition one whose
subject is universal. If the subject term is
singular, the proposition is universal.
Indicators: All, every, no one, and the definite
article: the.
Examples:
1. Every good deed is to be rewarded.
2. No educated persons are jobless.
3. All martyrs are not cowards.
4. GMA is the president of the Philippines.
5. The student-leader of DLSU-D is very
scholarly.
 a. Quantity
2) Particular proposition one whose
subject is particular. Indicators: some,
many, not all, most, etc., and the
indefinite article: a or an.
Examples:
1. An educator is an advocate of radical change.
2. Many politicians are not honest.
3. Not every activist is a communist.
4. Some independent nations are
underdeveloped.
 b. Quality
1) Affirmative proposition a proposition
whose copula joins the predicate with the
subject and the identity is affirmed. The
copula is either is, am or are.
Examples:
1. All politicians are rich people.
2. Drug addiction is a vice.
3. Mr. Ruben is our teacher in logic.
4. I am the greatest!
 b. Quality
2) Negative proposition one whose
copula separates the predicate from
the subject and their identity is denied.
The copula is either is not, am not
or are not.
Examples:
1. True laws are not unjust.
2. Some students are not active.
3. Andres Bonifacio is not a Caviteo.
 NOTE:

It is the copula that determines the quality of a

proposition. While there are propositions whose
subject or predicate, or both are negative, their
quality will still be determined by their copula.
Example:
1. The love of the Lord is unconditional.
2. An unfaithful wife is scorned.
3. That she is not the murderer is uncertain.
5. BASIC STANDARD FORMS OF
CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS
Combining these 2 properties of quantity and
quality, the categorical propositions are designated as
follows:
QUANTITY
(extension of the subject)
UNIVERSAL
PARTICULAR

NEGATIVE
AFFIRMATIVE
QUANTITY
(copula)
QUANTITY QUALITY
AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE
(+) (-)
Universal/
Singular A E
(All S are P) (No S are P)
Particular
I O
(Some S are P) (Some S are not P)
BASIC STANDARD FORMS or BASIC TYPES
 examples
1. All political candidates are people who wants to
serve the country.
2. Some jeepney drivers are not honest.
3. Few teachers are chosen as outstanding.
4. Many of our students are not studious.
5. Manny Pacquiao is the new WBC champion.
6. Not all citizens are registered voters.
7. Most Filipinos are great singers.
8. I am a Filipino.
6. Reduction of Proposition to Logical form

The reduction of a proposition into its

logical form consists of rewording or
changing a proposition not in its logical
form into a proposition which clearly
contains the four elements; namely, the
quantifier (Q), the subject term (S), the
copula (C), and the predicate term (Pr).
 Pointers on how to reduce propositions to
logical form
1. Once given a proposition, determine mentally whether a
proposition is either A, E, I, or O.
2. The logical subject is that about which something is either
affirmed or denied. One must ask oneself, what is that about
which something is either affirmed or denied?
3. The copula serves to connect the subject and the predicate.
It is always the present tense indicative mood of to be with
or without a negative modifier and it must always follow the
subject term in number and in person.
 Pointers on how to reduce propositions to
logical form

4. The logical predicate is that which is either

affirmed or denied of a subject. Bear in mind that
anything that comes after the subject is the
predicate.
1)When the main verb implies an act performed habitually,
the main verb may be used as a predicate noun.
2)The main verb may also be used as a predicate
adjective which modifies the immediate class to which
the subject belongs.
3)Sometimes the complete predicate term may be
expressed as a relative clause by using some
conjunctive words the one, or that who, or any
appropriate word and its plural form.
Mothers generally love their children.
1. I-proposition = some S are P
2. Some mothers (S)
3. Some mothers (S) are (C) .
4. 1) Some mothers (S) are (C) lovers of
their children (Pr). [predicate noun]
2) Some mothers are loving parents of
their children. [predicate adjective]
3) Some mothers are the ones who love
their children. [relative clause]
 Non-logical form Categorical propositions

1. Birds fly.
2. Indonesians like spicy foods.
3. Scorpions have poison.
4. If you work, then youll eat.
5. Black ants do not bite.
6. Only non-students are allowed to join the
contest.
7. Whosoever gives food to the hungry will enter
the Kingdom of God.
 Logical form categorical propositions
1. All birds are flying beings.
2. All Indonesians are people who like spicy
foods.
3. All scorpions are creatures that have poison.
4. All those persons who work are those persons
who will eat.
5. All black ants are insects that do not bite.
6. All persons who are allowed to join the contest
are the non-students.
7. All people who give food for the hungry are
persons who will enter the kingdom of God.
7. Quantity of the Predicate

A & I propositions, both affirmative, have

particular predicate terms.

E & O propositions, both negative, have

universal predicate terms.
7. Quantity of the Predicate
A = All voters are citizens. This proposition asserts that each
and every voter is a citizen, but it does not make any
affirmation or denial of all citizens, but only a part of it.
I = Some Filipinos are law-abiding. This proposition asserts
only of some Filipinos and only some law-abiding citizens.
E = No voters are aliens. This proposition asserts that aliens
are excluded from the class of voters. It asserts of each alien
that he or she is not a voter.
O = Some educated persons are not professionals. This
proposition does not assert something about all educated
persons, but some portions of them are totally excluded from
the whole extension of professionals.
 proposition Subject Predicate
A = All S are P U P
E = No S are P U U
I = Some S are P P P
O = Some S are not P P U

Rule No. 1: If the proposition is affirmative, the quantity of the

predicate is particular (except, if the predicate singular,
essential definition and characteristic property).
 proposition Subject Predicate
A = All S are P U P
E = No S are P U U
I = Some S are P P P
O = Some S are not P P U

Rule No. 2: If the proposition is negative, the quantity of the

predicate is universal.
8. Hypothetical Propositions
Hypothetical proposition a compound or complex
proposition between the parts of which there exists a relation
of dependence, opposition or similarity.

Three kinds:
1. Conditional
2. Disjunctive
3. Conjunctive
 1. Conditional
It is a compound proposition in which one member (the if
clause) asserts something as true on condition that the other
member (the then clause) is true.
In a conditional, the component proposition between the if and
the then is called the antecedent and the component
proposition which follows the then clause is the consequent.
A conditional proposition asserts that its antecedent implies its
consequent, so that if the antecedent is true , then the
consequent is true. In similar manner, if the consequent is false,
then the antecedent must be false.
The truth of conditional hypothetical propositions
does not depend on the truth of the statements
taken by themselves or individually. The truth
depends on the relation between the
statements.
 1. Conditional

1. If an animal is incapable of thinking, then an animal is not

a man.
2. If he has cancer, then he is seriously ill.
3. If over-dosage of medicine is dangerous, then it must be
avoided.
 2. Disjunctive
It is a compound or complex proposition which does not
categorically affirm either one of its members, but asserts
that at least one of them is true, allowing for the possibility
that others may be true.
Unlike a conjunctive, a disjunctive proposition contains two
or more members (disjuncts) which are joined together by
either. or..
For a proposition to be a proper disjunction, all
the possible alternatives must be present or
expressed; then the truth of one is
established by eliminating all the others.
 2. Disjunctive
Logical form: Either ..., or
(disjunct) (disjunct)

1. Either he committed suicide or he was killed by

somebody.
2. Either the patient is operated on or he will die.
3. I will go to Ozamiz (either) by plane, by boat or by land
travel.
 3. Conjunctive
It is a compound proposition which expresses that
two alternative assumptions are not or cannot be
true simultaneously.
Conjunctive proposition is characterized by two
elements which exclude one another, so that they
cannot be true together and they cannot be false
together.
The component parts (conjuncts) are joined by
the conjunctive particle cannot be both. and
.
For a proposition to be a valid conjunctive, it is
necessary that the elements are really
irreconcilable at the same time.
 3. Conjunctive

Logical form: cannot be.. and .. at the same time.

(conjunct) (conjunct)

1. A student cannot be diligent and non-diligent at the same

time.
2. You cannot be a loyal soldier and seditious at the same
time.
3. It is obvious that a person cannot be a Negro and a
Caucasian at the same time.
 SUMMARY
1. Through association of ideas, our mind
asserts whether one idea is affirmed or
denied of another. This process is called
judgment.
2. When we try to communicate this to others,
we express it by means of a proposition.
3. 2 kinds: Categorical and Hypothetical
4. Categorical = subject, copula and predicate
5. 2 properties: Quantity and Quality
 SUMMARY
6. The combination of quantity and quality of
proposition gives rise to 4 types of
propositions: A, E, I, O
7. Quantity of predicate = affirmative
particular; negative universal
8. Logical form: quantifier-subject-copula-
predicate
9. Hypothetical = conditional, disjunctive and
conjunctive