Computer Codes

Lecturer: Jing Liu

Email: [email protected]
Homepage: http://see.xidian.edu.cn/faculty/liujing
Computer Codes
A computer is a digital system that stores and
processes different types of data in the form of 0s
and 1s.

The different types of data handled by a computer

system include numbers, alphabets and some special
characters.

Therefore, there is a need to change the data

entered by the users into a form that the computer
system can understand and process.
Computer Codes
Different types of codes have been developed and
used to represent the data entered by the users in
the binary format.

The binary system represents each type of data in

terms of binary digits, 0s and 1s.

Since these codes convert the data into the binary

form, the computer codes are also referred as binary
codes.
Computer Codes
Computer professionals use different number systems
according to their requirements to communicate with the
computer system.

All the number systems used by computer professionals to

interact with computer systems come under the category
of positional number system.

The positional number system is a number system in

which numbers are represented using some symbols called
digits and the values of these numbers can be determined
by taking the position of digits into consideration.
Computer Codes
The different positional number systems are:

Decimal system
Binary system
Hexadecimal system
Octal system
Decimal System
The decimal system is the most common number
system used by human beings.
It is a positional number system that uses 10 as a
base to represent different values. Therefore, this
number system is also known as base 10 number
system.
In this system, 10 symbols are available for
representing the values. These symbols include the
digits from 0 to 9. The common operations
performed in the decimal system are addition (+),
subtraction (-), multiplication (), and division (/).
Decimal System
The decimal system can be used to represent both
the integer as well as floating point values. The
floating point values are generally represented in this
system by using a period called decimal point.
The decimal point is used to separate the integer part
and the fraction part of the given floating point
number.
The value of any number represented in the decimal
system can be determined by first multiplying the
weight associated with each digit in the given number
with the digit itself and then adding all these values
produced as a result of multiplication operation.
Decimal System
6543.124

Digit 6 5 4 3 . 1 2 4

Decimal
Weight 103 102 101 100 Point 10-1 10-2 10-3

The powers to the base increases by 1 towards

the left for the integer part and decreases by 1
towards the right for the fraction part.
Binary System
The binary system uses base 2 to represent different
values. Therefore, the binary system is also known as
base-2 system.
As this system uses base 2, only two symbols are
available for representing the different values in this
system. These symbols are 0 and 1, which are also
know as bits in computer terminology.
Using binary system, the computer systems can store
and process each type of data in terms of 0s and 1s
only.
 Binary System
The following are some of the technical terms used in binary system:
Bit: It is the smallest unit of information used in a computer system. It c
an either have the value 0 or 1. Derived from the words Binary ditIT.
Nibble: It is a combination of 4 bits.
Byte: It is a combination of 8 bits.
Word: It is a combination of 16 bits.
Double word: It is a combination of 32 bits.
Kilobyte (KB): It is used to represent the 1024 bytes of information.
Megabyte (MB): It is used to represent the 1024 KBs of information.
Gigabyte (GB): It is used to represent the 1024 MBs of information.
 Binary System
We can determine the weight associated with each bit in the given
binary number in the similar manner as we did in the decimal system.
In the binary system, the weight of any bit can be determined by
raising 2 to a power equivalent to the position of bit in the number.

1011.101

Digit 1 0 1 1 . 1 0 1

Binary
Weight 23 22 21 20 Point 2-1 2-2 2-3
Hexadecimal System
The hexadecimal system is a positional number
system that uses base 16 to represent different
values. Therefore, this number system is known as
base-16 system.
As this system uses base 16, 16 symbols are
available for representing the values in this system.
These symbols are the digits 0-9, which are used to
represent the decimal values 0 through 9, and the
letters A, B, C, D, E and F, which are used to
represent the decimal values 10 through 15.
Hexadecimal System
The weight associated with each symbol in the given
hexadecimal number can be determined by raising 16 to a
power equivalent to the position of the digit in the number.

4A90.2BC

Digit 4 A 9 0 . 2 B C

Hexadecimal
Weight 163 162 161 160 Point 16-1 16-2 16-3
Octal System
The octal system is the positional number system
that uses base 8 to represent different values.
Therefore, this number system is also known as
base-8 system.

As this system uses base 8, eight symbols are

available for representing the values in this system.
These symbols are the digits 0 to 7.
Octal System
The weight associated with each digit in the given octal number
can be determined by raising 8 to a power equivalent to the
position of the digit in the number.

2157.075

Digit 2 1 5 7 . 0 7 5

Octal
Weight 8 3
8 2
8
1
8 0
Point 8-1 8-2 8-3
4-Bit Binary Coded
Decimal (BCD) Systems
The BCD system is employed by computer systems to
encode the decimal number into its equivalent binary
number.
This is generally accomplished by encoding each digit
of the decimal number into its equivalent binary
sequence.
The main advantage of BCD system is that it is a fast
and efficient system to convert the decimal numbers
into binary numbers as compared to the pure binary
system.
4-Bit Binary Coded
Decimal (BCD) Systems
The 4-bit BCD system is usually employed by the
computer systems to represent and process
numerical data only. In the 4-bit BCD system, each
digit of the decimal number is encoded to its
corresponding 4-bit binary sequence. The two most
popular 4-bit BCD systems are:

Weighted 4-bit BCD code

Excess-3 (XS-3) BCD code
Weighted 4-Bit BCD Code
The weighted 4-bit BCD code is more commonly
known as 8421 weighted code.

It is called weighted code because it encodes the

decimal system into binary system by using the
concept of positional weighting into consideration.

In this code, each decimal digit is encoded into its 4-

bit binary number in which the bits from left to right
have the weights 8, 4, 2, and 1, respectively.
Weighted 4-Bit BCD Code
Decimal digits Weighted 4-bit BCD code
0 0000 Apart from
1 0001 8421, some
2 0010 other
3 0011 weighted
4 0100 BCD codes
5 0101 are 4221,
6 0110 2421 and
7 0111
5211.
8 1000
9 1001
 Weighted 4-Bit BCD Code
Examples 6.1-6.6, p100.
6.1: Represent the decimal number 5327 in 8421
BCD code.
The corresponding 4-bit 8421 BCD representation of decimal digit 5 is 0101
The corresponding 4-bit 8421 BCD representation of decimal digit 3 is 0011
The corresponding 4-bit 8421 BCD representation of decimal digit 2 is 0010
The corresponding 4-bit 8421 BCD representation of decimal digit 7 is 0111
Therefore, the 8421 BCD representation of decimal number 5327 is 0101001100100111.
 Excess-3 BCD Code
The Excess-3 (XS-3) BCD code does not use the principle of
positional weights into consideration while converting the
decimal numbers to 4-bit BCD system. Therefore, we can say
that this code is a non-weighted BCD code.
The function of XS-3 code is to transform the decimal numbers
into their corresponding 4-bit BCD code.

In this code, the decimal number is transformed to the 4-bit BCD

code by first adding 3 to all the digits of the number and then
converting the excess digits, so obtained, into their
corresponding 8421 BCD code. Therefore, we can say that the
XS-3 code is strongly related with 8421 BCD code in its
functioning.
Excess-3 BCD Code
Decimal digits Excess-3 BCD code
0 0011
1 0100
2 0101
3 0110
4 0111
5 1000
6 1001
7 1010
8 1011
9 1100
 Excess-3 BCD Code
Examples 6.7-6.9, p102.
6.7: Convert the decimal number 85 to XS-3 BCD code.
Add 3 to each digit of the given decimal number as:
8+3=11
5+3=8
The corresponding 4-bit 8421 BCD representation of the decimal digit 11 is 1011.
The corresponding 4-bit 8421 BCD representation of the decimal digit 8 is 1000.
Therefore, the XS-3 BCD representation of the decimal number 85 is 1011 1000.
Excess-3 BCD Code
Apart from XS-3 code, the other non-weighted BCD
code is 4-bit Gray code.
4-bit BCD systems are inadequate for representing
and handling non-numeric data. For this purpose, 6-
bit BCD and 8-BCD systems have been developed.
8-Bit BCD Systems
The 6-bit BCD systems can handle numeric as well as
non-numeric data but with few special characters.
The 8-bit BCD systems were developed to overcome
the limitations of 6-bit BCD systems, which can
handle numeric as well as nonnumeric data with
almost all the special characters such as +, -, *, /, @,
$, etc.
Therefore, the various codes under the category of
8-bit BCD systems are also known as alphanumeric
codes.
8-Bit BCD Systems
The three most popular 8-bit BCD codes are:

Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange

Code (EBCDIC)
American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII)
Gray Code
EBCDIC Code
The EBCDIC code is an 8-bit alphanumeric code
that was developed by IBM to represent alphabets,
decimal digits and special characters, including
control characters.

The EBCDIC codes are generally the decimal and

the hexadecimal representation of different
characters.

This code is rarely used by non IBM-compatible

computer systems.
ASCII Code
The ASCII code is pronounced as ASKEE and is
used for the same purpose for which the EBCDIC
code is used. However, this code is more popular
than EBCDIC code as unlike the EBCDIC code this
code can be implemented by most of the non-IBM
computer systems.

Initially, this code was developed as a 7-bit BCD

code to handle 128 characters but later it was
modified to an 8-bit code.
Gray Code
Gray code is another important code that is also
used to convert the decimal number into 8-bit
binary sequence. However, this conversion is
carried in a manner that the contiguous digits of
the decimal number differ from each other by
one bit only.
Gray Code
Decimal Number 8-Bit Gray Code
0 00000000
1 00000001
2 00000011
3 00000010
4 00000110
5 00000111
6 00001111
7 00001011
8 00001001
9 00001101
Gray Code
We can convert the Gray coded number to its binary
equivalent by remembering the following two major
rules:
The Most Significant Bit (MSB) of the Gray coded
number and the equivalent binary number is always
the same.
The next-to-most significant bit of the binary number
can be determined by adding the MSB of the binary
number to the next-to-most significant bit of the gray
coded number.
Gray Code
Examples 6.10-6.11, p106. Gray Coded Binary Binary Digit
Digit Addition
6.10: Convert the Gray Operation
coded number 11010011 to
1 1
its binary equivalent. The
following table lists the steps 1 1+1 0
showing the conversion of
the Gray coded number into 0 0+0 0
its binary equivalent:
1 1+0 1

Hence, the binary equivalent 0 0+1 1

of Gray coded number
11010011 is 10011101 0 0+1 1

1 1+1 0

1 1+1 1
Gray Code
We can also convert a number represented in the
binary form to Gray code representation. For carrying
out this conversion, we need to remember the
following two rules:
The Most Significant Bit (MSB) of the binary number
and the gray coded number is always the same.
The next MSD of the gray coded number can be
obtained by adding the subsequent pair of bits of the
binary number starting from the left.
Gray Code
Binary Digit Binary Gray Coded
Examples 6.12-6.13, Addition Digit
p107. Operation
6.12: Convert the 1 1
binary number 0 1+0 1
10100011 to its
1 0+1 1
equivalent Gray coded
number. 0 1+0 1

Hence, the Gray coded 0 0+0 0

equivalent of the binary 0 0+0 0
number 10100011 is 1 0+1 1
11110010.
1 1+1 0
Conversion of Numbers
The computer systems accept the data in decimal
form, whereas they store and process the data in
binary form. Therefore, it becomes necessary to
convert the numbers represented in one system into
the numbers represented in another system. The
different types of number system conversions can be
divided into the following major categories:

Non-decimal to decimal
Decimal to non-decimal
Octal to hexadecimal
Non-Decimal to Decimal
The non-decimal to decimal conversions can be
implemented by taking the concept of place values
into consideration. The non-decimal to decimal
conversion includes the following number system
conversions:

Binary to decimal conversion

Hexadecimal to decimal conversion
Octal to decimal conversion
Binary to Decimal
Conversion
A binary number can be converted to equivalent
decimal number by calculating the sum of the
products of each bit multiplied by its corresponding
place value.
Examples 6.14 and 6.17, p110.
6.14: Convert the binary number 10101101 into its
corresponding decimal number.
(127)+(026)+(125)+(024)+(123)+(122)+ (021)+(120)
=128+0+32+0+8+4+0+1
=173
Hexadecimal to Decimal
Conversion
A hexadecimal number can be converted into its
equivalent number in decimal system by calculating
the sum of the products of each symbol multiplied by
its corresponding place value.
Examples 6.20 and 6.22, p111.
6.20: Convert the hexadecimal number 6B39 into its
equivalent in the decimal system.
(6163)+(11162)+(3161)+(9160)
=24567+2816+48+9
=27449
Octal to Decimal
Conversion
An octal number can be converted into its equivalent
number in decimal system by calculating the sum of
the products of each digit multiplied by its
corresponding place value.
Examples 6.25 and 6.28, p113.
6.25: Convert the octal number 13256 into its
equivalent in decimal systems.
(184)+(383)+(282)+(581)+(680)
=4096+1536+128+40+6
=5806
Decimal to Non-Decimal
The decimal to non-decimal conversions are carried out by
continually dividing the decimal number by the base of the
desired number system till the decimal number becomes
zero. After the decimal number becomes zero, we may
note down the remainders calculated at each successive
division from last to first to obtain the decimal number into
the desired system. The decimal to non-decimal conversion
includes the following number system conversions:

Decimal to binary conversion

Decimal to hexadecimal conversion
Decimal to octal conversion
 Decimal to Binary
Conversion
The decimal to binary conversion Decimal Divisor Quotient Remainder
Number
is performed by repeatedly
dividing the decimal number by 2 30 2 15 0
till the decimal number becomes 15 2 7 1
zero and then reading the 7 2 3 1
remainders from last to first to 3 2 1 1
obtain the binary equivalent to of 1 2 0 1
the given decimal number.
Now, read the remainders
Examples 6.29 and 6.30, p114.
calculated in the above table in
6.29: Convert the decimal upward direction to obtain the
number 30 into its equivalent binary equivalent, which is
binary number. 11110. Therefore, the binary
equivalent of the decimal number
30 is 11110.
 Decimal to Hexadecimal
Conversion
The decimal to hexadecimal Decimal Divisor Quotient Remainder
conversion is performed by Number
repeatedly dividing the decimal 1567 16 97 15(F)
number by 16 till the decimal
97 16 6 1
number becomes zero and then
reading the remainders form last 6 16 0 6
to first to obtain the binary
equivalent to of the given Now, read the remainders
calculated in the above table in
decimal number.
upward direction to obtain the
hexadecimal equivalent, which is
Examples 6.34, p116: Convert 61F. Therefore, the hexadecimal
the decimal number 1567 into its equivalent of the decimal number
equivalent hexadecimal number. 1567 is 61F.
 Decimal to Octal
Conversion
The decimal to octal Decimal Divisor Quotient Remainder
conversion is performed by Number
repeatedly dividing the decimal 45796 8 5724 4
number by 8 till the decimal 5724 8 715 4
number becomes zero and 715 8 89 3
then reading the remainders 89 8 11 1
form last to first to obtain the
11 8 1 3
binary equivalent to of the
given decimal number. 1 8 0 1

Now, read the remainders calculated

Examples 6.36, p117: Convert in the above table in upward direction
the decimal number 45796 to to obtain the octal equivalent, which
its equivalent octal number. is 131344. Therefore, the octal
equivalent of the decimal number
45796 is 131344.
Octal to Hexadecimal
The given octal number can be converted into its
equivalent hexadecimal number in two different
steps:
(1) Convert the given octal number into its binary
equivalent by representing each digit in the octal
number to its equivalent 3-bit binary number.
(2) Divide the binary number into 4-bit sections
starting from the least significant bit.
Octal to Hexadecimal
Example 6.38, p119: Convert the octal number 365
into its equivalent hexadecimal number.

3 6 5

011 110 101

0000 1111 0101

0 F 5
Therefore, the equivalent hexadecimal number is F5.
Computer Arithmetic
Computer Arithmetic
A computer system stores and processes billions of instructions
in a second that involves a lot of arithmetic computations. The
different arithmetic operations in the computer system are
preformed by the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU).

The computer arithmetic is also referred as binary arithmetic

because the computer system stores and processes the data in
the binary form only.

Various binary arithmetic operations can be performed in the

same way as the decimal arithmetic operations, but by following
a predefined set of rules.
Computer Arithmetic
Each binary arithmetic operation has an associated set of
rules that should be adhered to while carrying out that
operations.
The binary arithmetic operations are usually simpler to carry
out as compared to the decimal operations because one
needs to deal with only two digits, 0 and 1, in the binary
operations.
The different binary arithmetic operations performed in a
computer system are:

Binary addition
Binary multiplication
Binary subtraction
Binary division
Binary Addition
Like decimal system, we can start the addition of two
binary numbers column-wise from the right most bit
and move towards the left most bit of the given
numbers. However, we need to follow certain rules.

A B A+B Carry The carry, if it is generated,

while performing the binary
0 0 0 0 addition in a column would be
0 1 1 0 forwarded to the next most
significant column.
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
Binary Addition
Examples 7.1 and 7.2, p124.
7.2: Perform the binary addition of the binary numbers
101010 and 010011:

1 0 1 0 1 0
+ 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 1
Binary Addition
We can also perform the binary addition on more
than two binary numbers.
A B C A+B+C Carry
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1
Binary Addition
Example 7.4, p124: Perform the binary addition
operation on the following three numbers: 0010, 0001,
0111.

0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
+ 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
Binary Multiplication
The multiplication of two binary numbers can be carried out in the same manner as the
decimal multiplication.
Unlike decimal multiplication, only two values are generated as the outcome of multiplying
the multiplication bit by 0 or 1 in the binary multiplication. These values are either 0 or 1.
The binary multiplication can also be considered as repeated binary addition. Therefore, the
binary multiplication is performed in conjunction with the binary addition operation.
 Binary Multiplication
A B AB Example 7.6, p127: Perform the binary
multiplication of the decimal numbers 12 and 10.
0 0 0
0 1 0 The equivalent binary representation of the decimal number 12 is 1100.
The equivalent binary representation of the decimal number 10 is 1010.
1 0 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 1 0
Binary multiplication 0 0 0 0
does not involve the 1 1 0 0
concept of carry. 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 0
Binary Subtraction
The binary subtraction is performed in the same way
as the decimal subtraction. Like binary addition and
binary multiplication, binary subtraction is also
associated with a set of rules that need to be
followed while carrying out the operation.

A B A-B Borrow
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
Binary Subtraction
Examples 7.10 and 7.11, p129.
7.11: Perform the binary subtraction of the following
numbers: 10101 and 01110

1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1
- 0 1 1 1 0
0 0 1 1 1
 Binary Division
Binary division is also performed in the same way as we perform decimal division. Like decimal
division, we also need to follow the binary subtraction rules while performing the binary division.
The dividend involved in binary division should be greater than the divisor. The following are the
two important points, which need to be remembered while performing the binary division.

If the remainder obtained by the division process is greater than or equal to the divisor, put 1 in
the quotient and perform the binary subtraction.
If the remainder obtained by the division process is less than the divisor, put 0 in the quotient
and append the next most significant digit from the dividend to the remainder.
Binary Division
Examples 7.14 and 7.15, p130.
7.15: Perform the binary division of the decimal numbers 18
and 8.

The equivalent binary representation of the decimal number 18 is 10010.

The equivalent binary representation of the decimal number 8 is 1000.

1 0 0 0 ) 1 0 0 1 0 ( 1 0 Quotient
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 Remainder
Signed/Unsigned Numbers
The unsigned binary number is the number with a
magnitude of either zero or greater than zero, and
are usually represented using the unsigned-
magnitude representation, which only represents the
magnitude of the numbers.

This type of representation does not take the sign of

the binary numbers into consideration while
representing these numbers.
Signed/Unsigned Numbers
The signed binary numbers are the numbers that
are always associated with a sign. This sign helps in
identifying whether the given binary number is a
positive quantity or a negative quantity.

Signed-magnitude representation is a method used in

the computer system for representing the signed
binary numbers. In this method, an extra bit called
sign bit is associated with the magnitude of the given
number. This sign bit is used to indicate whether the
given binary number is positive or negative. The
value of the sign bit is 0 for the positive numbers and
1 for the negative numbers.
Signed/Unsigned Numbers
Sign bit

0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 50

Sign bit

1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 -50
Signed/Unsigned Numbers
Advantages of the signed-magnitude representation:

It is very easy to represent and understand positive

as well as negative numbers using this
representation.
The binary multiplication and the binary division of
the signed binary numbers can be easily performed.
Represent equal number of positive and negative
quantities that makes it a very symmetrical method
of representation.
Signed/Unsigned Numbers
Disadvantages of the signed-magnitude representation:

It is not an easy task to perform the binary addition

and the binary subtraction using this representation.
It provides two different representations of zero, one
for plus zero and another for negative zero but
actually they are the same values. This could lead to
some confusion while performing various arithmetic
operations.
Complements of Binary
Numbers
The complement system can also be used to
represent the signed binary numbers apart from the
signed-magnitude representation method.
In the complement system, the positive integers are
represented in a similar manner as they are
represented in the signed-magnitude representation.
The following are the two most popular complement
methods used in the computer system:

Ones complement
Twos complement
Ones Complement
Ones complement method can be used to represent
negative binary numbers.

A negative number can be represented using ones

complement method by first computing the binary
equivalent of the number and then changing all the
zeros with ones and all the ones with zeros.

For example, the binary equivalent of the decimal

number 15 is 00001111. Therefore, -15 can be
represented using ones complement method as
11110000.
Ones Complement
The ones complement method also uses the left
most bit as the sign bit to indicate the sign of the
number.

Sign bit

1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 -15
Ones Complement
Integers Ones complement representation
-7 1000
-6 1001 The ones complement
-5 1010
method of representing
-4 1011
signed numbers also
-3 1100
-2 1101
has two different
-1 1110 representations for the
-0 1111 number, zero.
+0 0000
+1 0001
+2 0010
+3 0011
+4 0100
+5 0101
+6 0110
+7 0111
Ones Complement
Example 7.18 (P134): Represent -25 in the ones
complement system in byte size.

The equivalent binary representation of 25 is in byte size is

00011001.
Now, change all the zeros to ones and all the ones to zeros in
order to obtain the ones complement representation: 11100110
Therefore, the ones complement representation of -25 is
11100110.
Twos Complement
Twos complement is the most widely used method
for representing negative numbers in the computer
system.
The twos complement of the given integer can be
obtained by adding 1 to the ones complement of
that number.
For example, the twos complement representation of
-15 can be obtained by adding 1 to 11110000, which
is the ones complement representation of -15.
Therefore, the twos complement representation of
-15 is 11110001.
Twos Complement
The twos complement method also uses the
left most bit as the sign bit to indicate the sign
of the number.

Sign bit

1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 -15
Twos Complement
Integers Twos complement representation
-7 1001
-6 1010
-5 1011
-4 1100
-3 1101
-2 1110
-1 1111
-0 0000
+0 0000
+1 0001
+2 0010
+3 0011
+4 0100
+5 0101
+6 0110
+7 0111
Twos Complement
Example 7.21 (P136): Represent -33 in the twos
complement system in byte size.

The equivalent binary representation of 33 in a byte is

00100001.
Now, change all the zeros to ones and all the ones to zeros in
order to obtain the ones complement representation:
11011110.
Add 1 to the 11011110.
Therefore, the twos complement representation of -33 is
11011111.
Binary Subtraction Using
Complements
The complement methods can be used to perform
the binary subtraction of the signed integers:

Smaller number from larger one

Larger number from smaller one
Smaller Number from
Larger One
Using ones complement:

(1) Obtain the ones complement of the smaller

number;
(2) Perform the binary addition on the ones
complement and the larger number;
(3) If a carry is generated, add it to the calculated
result for obtaining the final result;
 Smaller Number from
Larger One
Now, perform the binary addition of the
Example 7.24, p138: Subtract 3 ones complement and the larger
from 8 using the ones number as:
complement method.
1 0 0 0
+ 1 1 0 0
The equivalent binary representation
of the decimal number 8 is 1000. 1 0 1 0 0
The equivalent binary representation
Add the generated carry to the
of the decimal number 3 is 0011.
calculated result as:
The ones complement representation
of the smaller number 3 is 1100.
0 1 0 0
+ 1
0 1 0 1
Therefore, the result of the binary subtraction
performed on the given numbers using ones
complement method is 0101.
Smaller Number from
Larger One
Using twos complement:

(1) Obtain the twos complement of the smaller

number;
(2) Perform the binary addition on the twos
complement and the larger number;
(3) Discard the carry to obtain the final answer;
 Smaller Number from
Larger One
Now, perform the binary addition of the
Example 7.26, p139: twos complement and the larger
Subtract 13 from 15 using number as:
the twos complement 1 1 1 1
method.
+ 0 0 1 1
The equivalent binary 1 0 0 1 0
representation of the decimal
number 15 is 1111. Discard the carry to obtain the final
answer, which is 0010.
The equivalent binary
representation of the decimal
number 13 is 1101.
The twos complement
representation of the smaller
number 13 is 0011.
Larger Number from
Smaller One
Using ones complement:

(1) Obtain the ones complement of the larger number;

(2) Perform the binary addition on the ones
complement and the smaller number to obtain the final
answer;
 Larger Number from
Smaller One
Now, perform the binary addition of the
Example 7.28, p140: Subtract 8 ones complement and the smaller
from 3 using the ones number as:
complement method. 0 1 1 1
+ 0 0 1 1
The equivalent binary representation
of the decimal number 8 is 1000. 1 0 1 0
The equivalent binary representation
Therefore, the result of the binary
of the decimal number 3 is 0011.
subtraction performed on the given
The ones complement
numbers using ones complement
representation of the larger number method is 1010.
8 is 0111.
Larger Number from
Smaller One
Using twos complement:

(1) Obtain the twos complement of the larger number;

(2) Perform the binary addition on the twos
complement and the smaller number to obtain the final
answer;
 Larger Number from
Smaller One
Example 7.30, p140: Subtract 6 Now, perform the binary addition on the
from 4 using twos complement twos complement and the smaller
method. number as:
1 0 1 0
The equivalent binary + 0 1 0 0
representation of the decimal
number 6 is 0110. 1 1 1 0
The equivalent binary Therefore, the result of the binary
representation of the decimal subtraction performed on the given
number 4 is 0100. numbers using twos complement
The twos complement method is 1110.
representation of the larger
number 6 is 1010.
Representing Numbers
The numbers processed by the computer system are
of two types, integer and floating-point. Therefore,
the number representations used in the computer
system are also of two types:

Integer representation
Floating-point representation
Integer Representation
Integer numbers are those numbers which do not
have fractional parts. Integer numbers include both
positive numbers and negative numbers. They can be
handled using any of the following representations:

Unsigned magnitude representation

Signed magnitude representation
Ones complement representation
Twos complement representation
Biased representation
Floating-Point
Representation
Floating-point numbers are the numbers containing two di
fferent parts, integer part and fractional part. The floating-
point numbers are also referred as real numbers. A notati
on known as scientific notation is used to represent the re
al numbers in the computer system. The scientific notation
, also called exponential notation, represents the real num
bers in the following form:

mbe, where m is the real value called mantissa, b is the b

ase of the number system, and e is the integer value calle
d exponent.
Floating-Point
Representation
In the scientific notation, the real numbers are
expressed as the product of some real value and the
base of the number system, where the base is raised
to some integer value.

325.123 3.25123102
0.000000245 2.4510-7
Floating-Point
Representation
A binary number can be represented in the scientific
notation by using base 2.

1000.0101 1.000010123
Floating-Point
Representation
A given number can be stored in the scientific
notation in different forms.
4333.123
4.333123103
43.33123102
433.3123101

The computer systems usually employ the normalized

scientific notation to represent real numbers.
0.324521102
0.52310-2
-0.5469105