Chapter 3
Underlying
Technology
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 1
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
OBJECTIVES:
To briefly discuss the technology of dominant wired LANs,
Ethernet, including traditional, fast, gigabit, and ten-gigabit
Ethernet.
To briefly discuss the technology of wireless WANs, including
IEEE 802.11 LANs, and Bluetooth.
To briefly discuss the technology of point-to-point WANs
including 56K modems, DSL, cable modem, T-lines, and SONET.
To briefly discuss the technology of switched WANs including
X.25, Frame Relay, and ATM.
To discuss the need and use of connecting devices such as
repeaters (hubs), bridges (two-layer switches), and routers
(three-layer switches).
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Chapter 3.1 Wired Local Area Network
Outline
3.2 Wireless LANs
3.3 Point-to-Point WANs
3.4 Switched WANs
3.5 Connecting Devices
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3-1 WIRED LOCAL AREA NETWORKS
A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that is
designed for a limited geographic area such as a building or
a campus. Although a LAN can be used as an isolated
network to connect computers in an organization for the
sole purpose of sharing resources, most LANs today are
also linked to a wide area network (WAN) or the Internet.
The LAN market has seen several technologies such
as Ethernet, token ring, token bus, FDDI, and ATM LAN,
but Ethernet is by far the dominant technology.
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Topics Discussed in the Section
IEEE Standards
Frame Format
Addressing
Ethernet Evolution
Standard Ethernet
Fast Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet
Ten-Gigabit Ethernet
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Figure 3.1 IEEE standard for LANs
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Figure 3.2 Ethernet Frame
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Figure 3.3 Maximum and minimum lengths
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Note
Minimum length: 64 bytes (512 bits)
Maximum length: 1518 bytes (12,144 bits)
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Figure 3.4 Ethernet address in hexadecimal notation
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Figure 3.5 Unicast and multicast addresses
unicast: 0 multicast: 1
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Note
The broadcast destination address is a
special case of the multicast address
in which all bits are 1s.
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Note
The least significant bit of the first byte
defines the type of address.
If the bit is 0, the address is unicast;
otherwise, it is multicast.
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Example 3.1
Define the type of the following destination addresses:
a. 4A:30:10:21:10:1A
b. 47:20:1B:2E:08:EE
c. FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF
Solution
To find the type of the address, we need to look at the second
hexadecimal digit from the left. If it is even, the address is unicast. If it is
odd, the address is multicast. If all digits are Fs, the address is
broadcast. Therefore, we have the following:
a. This is a unicast address because A in binary is 1010 (even).
b. This is a multicast address because 7 in binary is 0111 (odd).
c. This is a broadcast address because all digits are Fs.
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Example 3.2
Show how the address 47:20:1B:2E:08:EE is sent out on line.
Solution
The address is sent left-to-right, byte by byte; for each byte, it is
sent right-to-left, bit by bit, as shown below:
11100010 00000100 11011000 01110100 00010000 01110111
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Figure 3.6 Ethernet evolution through four generations
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Figure 3.7 Space/time model of a collision in CSMA
B starts C starts
at time t1 at time t2
A B C D
Area where
As signal exists
Area where
both signals exist
Area where
Bs signal exists
Time Time
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Figure 3.8 Collision of the first bit in CSMA/CD
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Example 3.3
In the standard Ethernet, if the maximum propagation time is 25.6
s, what is the minimum size of the frame?
Solution
The frame transmission time is Tfr = 2 Tp = 51.2 s. This
means, in the worst case, a station needs to transmit for a period
of 51.2 s to detect the collision. The minimum size of the frame
is 10 Mbps 51.2 s = 512 bits or 64 bytes. This is actually the
minimum size of the frame for Standard Ethernet, as we discussed
before.
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Figure 3.9 CSMA/CD flow diagram
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Figure 3.10 Standard Ethernet implementation
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Figure 3.11 Fast Ethernet implementation
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Note
In the full-duplex mode of Gigabit
Ethernet, there is no collision;
the maximum length of the cable is
determined by the signal attenuation
in the cable.
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Figure 3.12 Gigabit Ethernet implementation
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3-2 WIRELESS LANS
Wireless communication is one of the fastest growing
technologies. The demand for connecting devices
without the use of cables is increasing everywhere.
Wireless LANs can be found on college campuses, in
office buildings, and in many public areas. In this
section, we concentrate on two wireless technologies
for LANs: IEEE 802.11 wireless LANs, sometimes called
wireless Ethernet, and Bluetooth, a technology for
small wireless LANs.
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Topics Discussed in the Section
IEEE 802.1
MAC Sublayer
Addressing Mechanism
Bluetooth
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Figure 3.13 Basic service sets (BSSs)
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Figure 3.14 Extended service sets (ESSs)
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Figure 3.15 CSMA/CA flow diagram
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Figure 3.16 CSMA/CA and NAV
Source Destination All other stations
DIFS
1 RTS
SIFS
CTS 2
SIFS
NAV
3 Data (No carrier sensing)
SIFS
ACK 4
Time Time Time Time
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Figure 3.17 Frame format
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Figure 3.18 Control frames
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Figure 3.19 Hidden station problem
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Note
The CTS frame in CSMA/CA handshake
can prevent collision from a hidden
station.
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Figure 3.20 Use of handshaking to prevent hidden station problem
B A C
RTS
CTS CTS
Time Time Time
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Figure 3.21 Exposed station problem
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Figure 3.22 Use of handshaking in exposed station problem
RTS RTS
CTS
RTS RTS
Data CTS
Data
Collision
here
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Figure 3.23 Piconet
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Figure 3.24 Scatternet
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Figure 3.25 Frame format types
72 bits 54 bits 0 to N bits
Access code Header Data
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3-3 POINT-TO-POINT WANS
A second type of network we encounter in the Internet
is the point-to-point wide area network. A point-to-
point WAN connects two remote devices using a line
available from a public network such as a telephone
network. We discuss traditional modem technology,
DSL line, cable modem, T-lines, and SONET.
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Topics Discussed in the Section
65K Modems
DSL Technology
Cable Modem
T Lines
SONET
PPP
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Figure 3.26 56K modem
Downloading,
Uploading, no quantization noise
quantization noise
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Note
ADSL is an asymmetric communication
technology designed for residential
users; it is not suitable for businesses.
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Figure 3.27 Bandwidth division
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Figure 3.28 ADSL and DSLAM
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Figure 3.29 Cable bandwidth
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Figure 3.30 Cable modem configuration
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Figure 3.31 PPP frame
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3-4 SWITCHED WANS
The backbone networks in the Internet can be switched
WANs. A switched WAN is a wide area network that
covers a large area (a state or a country) and provides
access at several points to the users. Inside the
network, there is a mesh of point-to-point networks
that connects switches. The switches, multiple port
connectors, allow the connection of several inputs and
outputs.
Switched WAN technology differs from LAN
technology in many ways.
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Topics Discussed in the Section
X.25
Frame Relay
ATM
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Note
A cell network uses the cell as the basic
unit of data exchange.
A cell is defined as a small, fixed-size
block of information.
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Figure 3.32 ATM multiplexing
A3 A2 A1
B1 C3 B2 A3 C2 B1 A2 C1 A1
B2
C3 C2 C1
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Figure 3.33 Architecture of an ATM network
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Figure 3.34 Virtual circuit
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Note
A virtual connection is defined by a pair
of numbers: the VPI and the VCI.
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Figure 3.35 ATM layers
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Figure 3.36 Use of the layers
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Note
The IP protocol uses the AAL5 sublayer.
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Figure 3.37 AAL5
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Figure 3.38 ATM layer
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Figure 3.39 An ATM cell
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3-5 CONNECTING DEVICES
LANs or WANs do not normally operate in isolation.
They are connected to one another or to the Internet.
To connect LANs and WANs together we use
connecting devices. Connecting devices can operate in
different layers of the Internet model. We discuss three
kinds of connecting devices: repeaters (or hubs),
bridges (or two-layer switches), and routers (or three-
layer switches).
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Topics Discussed in the Section
Repeaters
Bridges
Routers
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Figure 3.40 Connecting devices
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Figure 3.41 Repeater or hub
Sent
Maintained
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Note
A repeater forwards every bit; it has no
filtering capability.
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Note
A bridge has a table used in filtering
decisions.
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Note
A bridge does not change the physical
(MAC) addresses in a frame.
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Figure 3.42 Bridge
Bridge table
Address Port
71:2B:13:45:61:41 1
71:2B:13:45:61:42 2
64:2B:13:45:61:12 3
64:2B:13:45:61:13 4
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Figure 3.43 Learning bridge
Address Port
a. Original
Address Port
Address Port 71:2B:13:45:61:41 1
Address Port
71:2B:13:45:61:41 1 64:2B:13:45:61:13 4
71:2B:13:45:61:41 1
64:2B:13:45:61:13 4 71:2B:13:45:61:42 2
64:2B:13:45:61:13 4
71:2B:13:45:61:42 2 64:2B:13:45:61:12 3
c. After D sends a frame to B d. After B sends a frame to A e. After C sends a frame to D
M M M
M
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Note
A router is a three-layer (physical, data
link, and network) device.
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Note
A repeater or a bridge connects
segments of a LAN.
A router connects independent LANs or
WANs to create an internetwork
(internet).
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Figure 3.44 Routing example
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Note
A router changes the physical
addresses in a packet.
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