Centrifugation

•The separation by sedimentation of tωo immiscible liquids, or of a

liquid and a solid, depends on the effects of gravity on the components.
•Sometimes this separation may be very sloω because the specific
gravities of the components may not be very different, or because of
forces holding the components in association, for example as occur in
emulsions.
•Also, under circumstances ωhen sedimentation does occur there may
not be a clear demarcation betωeen the components but rather a
merging of the layers.
•For example, if ωhole milk is alloωed to stand, the cream ωill rise to
the top and there is eventually a clean separation betωeen the cream
and the skim milk. Hoωever, this takes a long time, of the order of one
day, and so it is suitable, perhaps, for the farm kitchen but not for the
factory.
• Much greater forces can be obtained by
introducing centrifugal action, in a centrifuge.
Gravity still acts and the net force is a
combination of the centrifugal force ωith gravity
as in the cyclone.
• Because in most industrial centrifuges, the
centrifugal forces imposed are so much greater
than gravity, the effects of gravity can usually be
neglected in the analysis of the separation.
•  
• The centrifugal force on a particle that is constrained to
rotate in a circular path is given by
Fc = mrω2 ……………(1) 
  ωhere Fc is the centrifugal force acting on the particle to
maintain it in the circular path, r is the radius of the path,
m is the mass of the particle, and ω(omega) is the angular
velocity of the particle.
• Or, since ω = v/r, ωhere v is the tangential velocity of the
particle
    Fc = (mv2)/r  …………..(2)
• Rotational speeds are normally expressed in revolutions
per minute, so that eqn. (2) can also be written,
as ω = 2πN/60
(as it has to be in s-1, divide by 60)
 Fc = mr( 2 π N/60)2 = 0.011 mrN2       (3)
where N is the rotational speed in revolutions
per minute.
• If this is compared with the force of gravity (Fg)
on the particle, which is Fg = mg ,
• it can be seen that the centrifugal acceleration,
equal to 0.011 rN2, has replaced the gravitational
acceleration, equal to g.
• The centrifugal force is often expressed for
comparative purposes as so many "g".
 EXAMPLE :Centrifugal force in a centrifuge.

• How many "g" can be obtained in a centrifuge

which can spin a liquid at 2000 rev/min at a
maximum radius of 10 cm?
      Fc = 0.011 mrN2
  Fg = mg
• Fc /Fg = (0.011 rN2) / g
          = (0.011 x 0.1 x 20002)/9.81
          = 450
• The centrifugal force depends upon the radius and speed of
rotation and upon the mass of the particle.
• If the radius and the speed of rotation are fixed, then the
controlling factor is the weight of the particle so that the
heavier the particle the greater is the centrifugal force acting
on it.
• Consequently, if two liquids, one of which is twice as dense
as the other, are placed in a bowl and the bowl is rotated
about a vertical axis at high speed, the centrifugal force per
unit volume will be twice as great for the heavier liquid as for
the lighter.
• The heavy liquid will therefore move to occupy the annulus
at the periphery of the bowl and it will displace the lighter
liquid towards the centre. This is the principle of the
centrifugal liquid separator, illustrated diagrammatically in
Fig.
Figure : Liquid separation in a centrifuge
 Rate of separation
The basic equation for the steady-state velocity of particles
moving in a streamline flow under the action of an accelerating
force is, :
vm = D2a(rp - rf) /18 μ
vm is the terminal velocity; a is the acceleration which results from
the external force, rp is the density of the particle and r f is the
density of the fluid. D is the diameter of the particle, μ is viscosity
• If a streamline flow occurs in a centrifuge we can write, from
eqns. ( 2)and (3) as a is the tangential acceleration;:
•       Fc = ma
  Fc/m = a = r(2pN/60)2
• so that
•      vm = D2r(2pN/60)2(rp - rf) /18 μ
•           = D2N2r(rp - rf)/1640 μ
 Liquid Separation

• The separation of one component of a liquid-liquid mixture,

where the liquids are immiscible but finely dispersed, as in
an emulsion, is a common operation in the food industry.
• It is particularly common in the dairy industry in which the
emulsion, milk, is separated by a centrifuge into skim milk
and cream. It seems worthwhile, on this account, to
examine the position of the two phases in the centrifuge as
it operates.
• The milk is fed continuously into the machine, which is
generally a bowl rotating about a vertical axis, and cream
and skim milk come from the respective discharges. At some
point within the bowl there must be a surface of separation
between cream and the skim milk.
Liquid centrifuge (a) pressure difference (b) neutral zone
 Consider a thin differential cylinder, of thickness dr and
height b as shown in Fig. 10.4(a):
 the differential centrifugal force across the thickness dr is
given by equation (10.5):
         dFc = (dm)rw2
where dFc is the differential force across the cylinder wall, dm
is the mass of the differential cylinder, w is the angular
velocity of the cylinder and r is the radius of the cylinder.
But, dm = 2pρrbdr
where ρ is the density of the liquid and b is the height of the
cylinder. The area over which the force dFc acts is 2prb, so
that:
dFc /2prb = dP = ρ w2rdr
where dP is the differential pressure across the wall of the
differential cylinder.
• To find the differential pressure in a centrifuge, between
radius r1 and r2, the equation for dP can be integrated, letting
the pressure at radius r1 be P1 and that at r2 be P2, and so
  P2 - P1 = rw2 (r22 - r12)/2                              (10.9)
Equation (10.9) shows the radial variation in pressure across
the centrifuge.
• Consider now Fig. 10.4(b), which represents the bowl of a
vertical continuous liquid centrifuge.
• The feed enters the centrifuge near to the axis, the heavier
liquid A discharges through the top opening 1 and the lighter
liquid B through the opening 2.
• Let r1 be the radius at the discharge pipe for the heavier
liquid and r2 that for the lighter liquid.
• At some other radius rn there will be a separation between
the two phases, the heavier and the lighter.
• For the system to be in hydrostatic balance, the
pressures of each component at radius rn must
be equal, so that applying eqn. (10.9) to find the
pressures of each component at radius rn, and
equating these we have:
ρ Aw2 (rn2 - r12)/2 = ρ Bw2(rn2– r22)/2
rn2 = (ρ Ar12 - ρ Br22) / (ρ A - ρ B) (10.10)
• where ρ A is the density of the heavier liquid and
ρB is the density of the lighter liquid.
• Equation (10.10) shows that as the discharge radius for
the heavier liquid is made smaller, then the radius of the
neutral zone must also decrease.
• When the neutral zone is nearer to the central axis, the
lighter component is exposed only to a relatively
small centrifugal force compared with the heavier liquid.
• This is applied where, as in the separation of cream from
milk, as much cream as possible is to be removed and the
neutral radius is therefore kept small.
• The feed to a centrifuge of this type should be as nearly as
possible into the neutral zone so that it will enter with the
least disturbance of the system. This relationship can,
therefore, be used to place the feed inlet and the product
outlets in the centrifuge to get maximum separation.
 EXAMPLE 10.5. Centrifugal separation of milk and cream

• If a cream separator has discharge radii of 5 cm

and 7.5 cm and if the density of skim milk is 1032
kg m-3 and that of cream is 915 kg m-3, calculate the
radius of the neutral zone so that the feed inlet can
be designed.
For skim milk, r1 = 0.075m, ρA = 1032 kg m-3, cream
r2 = 0.05 m, ρ B= 915 kg m-3
• From eqn. (10.10)
• rn2 = [1032 x (0.075)2 - 915 x (0.05)2] / (1032 - 915)
                          = 0.03 m2
                      rn = 0.17 m
                          = 17 cm
• The simplest form of centrifuge
consists of a bowl spinning about a
vertical axis, as shown in Fig.
• Liquids, or liquids and solids, are
introduced into this and under
centrifugal force the heavier liquid or
particles pass to the outermost regions
of the bowl, whilst the lighter
components move towards the centre.
• If the feed is all liquid, then suitable
collection pipes can be arranged to
allow separation of the heavier and the
lighter components.
• Various arrangements are used to
accomplish this collection effectively
and with a minimum of disturbance to
the flow pattern in the machine.
• To understand the function of these
collection arrangements, it is very
often helpful to think of the centrifuge
action as analogous to gravity settling,
with the various weirs and overflows
acting in just the same way as in a
settling tank even though the
centrifugal forces are very much
greater than gravity.
Liquid centrifuges: (a) conical bowl, (b) nozzle
• In liquid/liquid separation centrifuges, conical
plates are arranged as illustrated in Fig.(a) and
these give smoother flow and better separation.
• Whereas liquid phases can easily be removed
from a centrifuge, solids present much more of a
problem.
• In liquid/solid separation, stationary ploughs
cannot be used as these create too much
disturbance of the flow pattern on which the
centrifuge depends for its separation.
• One method of handling solids is to provide
nozzles on the circumference of the centrifuge
bowl as illustrated in Fig.
• These nozzles may be opened at
intervals to discharge accumulated
solids together with some of the
heavy liquid.
• Alternatively, the nozzles may be
open continuously relying on their
size and position to discharge the
solids with as little as possible of
the heavier liquid.
• These machines thus separate the
feed into three streams, light
liquid, heavy liquid and solids, the
solids carrying with them some of
the heavy liquid as well.
Liquid/solid centrifuges (a) telescoping bowl,
(b) horizontal bowl, scroll discharge
• Another method of
handling solids from
continuous feed is to
employ telescoping action
in the bowl, sections of the
bowl moving over one
another and conveying the
solids that have
accumulated towards the
outlet, as illustrated in Fig.
10.6(a).
•The horizontal bowl with scroll discharge, centrifuge, as
illustrated in Fig.10.6(b) can discharge continuously.
•In this machine, the horizontal collection scroll (or screw)
rotates inside the conical-ended bowl of the machine and
conveys the solids with it, whilst the liquid discharges
over an overflow towards the centre of the machine and
at the opposite end to the solid discharge.
•The essential feature of these machines is that the speed of
the scroll, relative to the bowl, must not be great.
•For example, if the bowl speed is 2000 rev/min, a suitable
speed for the scroll might be 25 rev/min relative to the bowl
which would mean a scroll speed of 2025 or 1975 rev/min.
• The differential speeds are maintained by gearing between
the driving shafts for the bowl and the scroll. These machines
can continuously handle feeds with solid contents of up to
30%.
 Defn :

• HYDROSTATIC PRESURE - The pressure at any

point in a liquid at rest; equal to the depth of the
liquid multiplied by its density.
• PRESSURE - The normal force exerted by a
homogeneous liquid or gas, per unit of area, on
the wall of its container.
• MASS - The quantity of matter in a body as
measured by the ratio of the force required to
produce a given acceleration, to the acceleration.