Statement or Proposition : A statement or proposition , is a

declarative sentence that is either true or false , but not both.

 those declarative sentences will be admitted in the object
language which have one and only one of two possible values
called “Truth value”.
 The two truth values are true and false and are denoted by the
symbols T and F respectively , Occasionally they are also denoted
by the symbol 1 and o.
 Note that we do not admit any other types of sentences , such
as Exclamatory ,Interrogative in object language.
 Declarative sentences in the object language are two types ,
The first type includes those sentences which are considered to be
primitive in the object language.
This will be denoted by distinct symbols selected from the
capital letters A , B , …. , P ,Q ….
 Second type are obtained from the primitive ones by using
certain symbols ,called connectives , and certain punctuation
marks, such as parentheses , to join primitive sentences.
 In any case , all declarative sentences to which it is possible to
assign one and only of the two possible truth values are called
Statements .
 These statement which do not contain any of the connectives
are called Atomic (Primary Primitive) statement.
1)Canada is a country.
2) Moscow is the capital of Spain.
3)This statement is false.
4) 1 + 101 = 110
5) Close the door.
6) Toronto is an old city.
7)Man will reach Mars by 1980.
 Statement (1) and (2) have truth values true and false .
 Sentence (3) is not a statement according to our definition ,
Because we cannot assign to it a definite truth value.
 If we assign the value true then statement (3) is false.
 if we assign the value false then statement (3) is true.
 Statement (4) is also statement but depends upon the context ;
we are consider this sentence in decimal system then it is false ,
and if we consider in binary system then it is true sentence , so
sentence (4) is statement.
Statement (5) is not statement because it is interrogative
statement.
 statement (6) is consider true in some part of the world and
false in certain other parts.
 In statement (7) could be determined only in the year 1980 or
earlier if a man reaches Mars before that date.
Connectives :
 in the case of simple statements ,their truth values are fairly
obvious.
 it is possible to construct rather complicated statements from
simpler statements by using certain connecting words or
expressions known as “sentential connectives”.
 The statement that we consider initially are simple statements,
called atomic or primary statements.
 New statement can be formed from atomic statements through
the use of sentential connectives.
 The resulting statement are called molecular or compound
statements.
Thus the atomic statements are those which do not have any
connectives.
 Capital letters are used to denote statements.
 The capital letters with or without subscripts , will also be used
to denote arbitrary statements.
In the sense , a statement “P” either denotes a particular
statement or serves as a placeholder for any statement .
 This dual use of the same symbol to denote either a definite
statement , called a constant , or an arbitrary statement called a
variable.
The truth value of “P” is the truth value of actual statement
which it represents.
It should be emphasizes that when “P” is used as a statement
variable ,it has no truth value and such does not represent a
statement in symbolic logic.
Negation : The negation of statement is generally formed by
introducing the word “Not” at a proper place in statement or
prefixing the statement with the phrase “It is not case that” and
read as “not P”.
 Let P be a statement. The negation of P ,written  P or P  is
the statement obtained by negating statement P.
 If the truth value of P is true then truth value of  P is false ,
and If the truth value of P is false then truth value of  P is true.
This definition of Negation is summarized by truth table given
below.
P P
T F
F T
Example :
1)P : London is a city
 P : It is not case that London is a city
 P : London is not a city.
2) P : I went to my class yesterday
 P : I did not go to my class yesterday.
 P : I was absent from my class yesterday.
 P : It is not the case that I went to my class yesterday.
Note : negation is called connectives although it only
modifies a statement or a variable.
Conjunction : Let P and Q be statements .The Conjunction of P
and Q ,written P  Q , is the statement formed by joining
statements P and Q using the word “and” .The statement P  Q
is true if both P and Q are true ; otherwise P  Q is false.
 The symbol  is called “and” . Let P and Q be statements . The
truth table of P  Q is given by :

P Q PQ
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Example :
1)P : 2 is an even integer , Q = 7 divides 14.
R : 2 is an even integer and 7 divides 14.
2)P : It is raining today , Q = There are 20 tables in this
room.
R : It is raining today and there are 20 tables in this
room.
3) Jack and jill went up the hill.
Form this statement we get two statement jack went up the
hill and jill went up the fill.
If we now write P : Jack went up the hill , Q : Jill went up
the hill.
Then the given statement can be written in symbolic from
P  Q.
Disjunction : Let P and Q be statements . The Disjunction of P and
Q , written P  Q , is statement formed by putting statements P and
Q together using the word “Or”. The truth value of the statement P 
Q is T if at least one of statements P and Q is true.
 The symbol  is called “Or” , For the statement P  Q is given by :
P Q PQ
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Example :
1)P : 22 + 33 is an even integer
Q : 22 + 33 is an odd integer Then
P  Q : 22 + 33 is an even integer or 22 + 33 is an odd integer
OR
P  Q : 22 + 33 is an even integer or an odd integer.
Conditional or Implication : Let P and Q be two statements.
Then “If P , then Q” is statement called an Implication or
conditional statement ,written P  Q.
 The statement P  Q has a truth value F when truth value of P is
true and Q is false.
 Otherwise truth value of conditional or implication is T.
 The statement P is called the antecedent or hypothesis and Q is
called consequent or conclusion in P  Q.
According to the definition , it is not necessary that there be any
kind of relation between P and Q in order to form P  Q.
The statement P  Q is also to be read as
P implies Q
Or
P is sufficient for Q
Or
Q if P
Or
Q whenever P.
In the implication P  Q ,p is called the hypothesis and q is
called the conclusion.
 The truth table of P  Q is given by :
p Q PQ
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Example :
1)If today is Sunday ,then I will go for walk.”
Let P : Today is Sunday
q : I will go for walk
Biimplication and biconditional : Let P and Q be two
statements , Then “P if and only if Q” , written P  Q is
called the Biimplication or biconditional of the statement P
and Q.
 The statement P  Q may also read as “ P is necessary and
sufficient for Q” or “Q is necessary and sufficient for P” , or “Q
if and only of P” or “Q when and only when P”.
We define that the Biimplication P  Q is considered to be
true when both P and Q have the same truth values and false
otherwise.
 It is also denoted by P  Q .
 The truth table of Biimplication is given below.

P Q PQ
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
 Let P and Q be statements.
1)The statement Q  P is called the converse of the
implication P  Q.
Example : P: Today is Sunday
Q : I will go for walk.
Converse of P  Q : If I will go for a walk ,then today is
Sunday.
2) The statement  P   Q is called the inverse of the
implication P  Q.
Inverse of P  Q : If today is not Sunday then I will not go for
a walk.
3) The statement  Q   P is called the Contrapositive of
the implication P  Q .
Contrapositive of P  Q : If I will not go for a walk , then
today is not Sunday
Statement Formulas (Formulas)
 Those statements which do not contain any connectives are
called atomic or primary or simple statement.
Those statements which contain one or more primary
statements and some connectives are called Molecular or
composite or compound statements.
Let P and Q be any two statements . Some of the compound
statements formed by using P and Q are
P P  Q (P  Q)  (P) P  (Q)
 the compound statements given above are statement
formulas derived from the statement variables P and Q.
P and Q may be called the components or statement
variables of the statement Formulas.
The symbol  ,  ,  ,  ,  are called logical connectives.
 In the construction of formulas, The parentheses will
be used in the same sense in which they are used in
elementary arithmetic or algebra or sometimes in a
computer programming language.
This usage means that the expressions in the
innermost parentheses are simplifies first.
If there are n distinct components in a statement
formula , we need to consider 2n possible combinations
of truth values in order to obtain the truth table.
In statement formula without parentheses that
contains logical connectives , the logical connectives are
evaluated in the following order ; i.e. the precedence of
logical connectives is :  ,  , ,  , 