Lecture 7

SIEL 4783
mechatronics &
robotics

MODELING & SIMULATION OF

PHYSICAL SYSTEMS
Michael Mensah
Department of Engineering
Regent University College of Sci. & Tech 02.28.17
 Outlines
 Operator Notation and Transfer Functions

 Block Diagrams, Manipulations, and Simulation

 Block Diagrams—Introduction

 Block Diagrams—Manipulations

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 Overview
 Component modeling, which is the derivation of mathematical
equations suitable for computer simulation, plays a critical role during
the design stages of a mechatronic system.

 For all but the simplest systems, the performance aspects of

components (such as sensors, actuators, and mechanical geometry)
and their effect on system performance can only be evaluated by
simulation.

 Any modeling task requires the formulation of mathematical models

suitable for computer simulation or solution—the terms are analogous.

 This chapter presents one method, the analogy approach, which can
be used for such modeling tasks. It was developed by electrical
engineers to model mechanical, thermal, and fluid systems for
simulation on analog computers.
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 Overview
 Because the analog computer was used for the simulation
environment, it was fitting that models were constructed using
standard electrical elements, such as resistors, capacitors, and
inductors.

 Analog computer simulation environments have two attractive

features: precise integration and real-time operation, but they are
limited in their ability to represent and solve complex nonlinear
equations.

 For example, a nonlinear table function cannot be incorporated using

the standard electrical elements, instead the function must be
approximated by a truncated power series and represented as a
polynomial.

 Being a sequence of multiplications and additions, the polynomial

then can be represented using the standard electrical elements.

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 Overview
 If one table entry is modified, the approximating polynomial must be
completely regenerated—a time consuming process. Today the
digital computer is used extensively for simulation.

 Instead of using standard electrical elements and circuits, digital

computer models are constructed using block elements and
represented as block diagrams.

 Block diagrams are much more powerful, flexible, and intuitive than
circuit models.

 In this chapter, we will present two approaches for developing block

diagram models from system illustrations: (1) the direct method and
(2) the analogy method with slight modifications.

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 Operator Notation and Transfer Functions

 For ease in writing linear lumped-parameter differential equations, the D

operator is introduced.

 Any linear lumped differential equation can be converted to operator

form by simply substituting the operation using differentiation or
integration with the appropriate operator.

 Table 2-1 summarizes the operators for differentiation and integration

and presents several examples.

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 Operator Notation and Transfer Functions
For example, consider the following second-order dynamic system with
one input, r(t), and one output, y(t) .

 To illustrate the procedure, we’ll convert the second-order differential

equation to its transfer function form.

Step 1. Rewrite the equation using operator notation

Step 2. Collect and factor all output terms on the left side and input
terms on the right side:

Step 3. Obtain the transfer function by solving for the ratio of the output
over the input signal:

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 Block Diagrams, Manipulations, & Simulation

 Simulation is the process of solving a block diagram model on a

computer. Generally, simulation is the process of solving any model, but
since block diagram models are so widely used, we will use block
diagrams for all modeling tasks in this text.

Block Diagrams—Introduction
 Block diagram models consist of two fundamental objects: signal wires
and blocks.

 The function of a signal wire is to transmit a signal or value from its

origination point (usually a block) to its termination point (usually
another block).

 The flow direction of the signal is defined by an arrowhead on the signal

wire.

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 Block Diagrams
 There is, however, a fundamental set of three basic blocks that all block
diagram languages possess.

 These blocks are the summing junction, the gain, and the integrator.

 An example system using these three blocks is presented in Figure 2-1.

 The vertical signal, Yo,

entering the integrator
from the top represents
the initial condition on
the integrator. When
this signal is omitted,
the initial condition is
assumed to be 0.

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Block Diagrams—Manipulations
 Block diagrams are rarely constructed in a standard form, and it is
often necessary to reduce them to more efficient or understandable
forms.

 The ability to simplify a block diagram is often a critical step in

understanding its function and behavior.

 This section presents several basic rules which may be used to

reduce a block diagram.

Series Block Reduction

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Block Diagrams—Manipulations

Parallel Block Reduction

Moving Pick-Off Points

 Pick-off points are wire origination points located on a wire as opposed
to a block output.

 It is often necessary to move pick-off points either downstream or

upstream in order to create a parallel block configuration which can then
be reduced using the parallel block reduction rule.
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Block Diagrams—Manipulations
 Downstream: When a pick-off point is shifted downstream over a
block, the inverse of the block appears in the feedback path. Figure 2-5
illustrates this reduction

PICK-OFF POINT SHIFTED DOWNSTREAM

Upstream: When a pick-off point is shifted upstream over a block, the

block appears in the feedback path. Figure 2-6 illustrates this reduction.

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PICK-OFF POINT SHIFTED UPTREAM
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Block Diagrams—Manipulations
 Two situations are considered: moving a block through a summing
junction in the upstream direction (Figure 2-7) and moving a block
through a summing junction in the down stream direction (Figure 2-8).

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Block Diagrams—Manipulations

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ENGIN112 L8: Minimization with Karnaugh Maps September 19, 2003
SIMPLIFYING A MASS–SPRING–DAMPER BLOCK DIAGRAM

a) Starting block diagram.

b) The block diagram can be

simplified by moving the pick-
off point to X and making the
appropriate scaling change, a
multiplication by 1/D, in the FB
path.

c) The two feedback loops now

originate from the same pick-off
point, X, and terminate at the
same summing junction so they
can be combined as a parallel
combination. Similarly the entire
forward loop can be reduced as a
series combination.

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Block Diagrams—Reduction Techniques
Example 2 Feedback Plus Parallel Forward-Loop Diagram Reduction

Solution

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 Block Diagrams—Reduction Techniques
Solution continues…

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MODELING &
SIMULATION
OF PHYSICAL
SYSTEMS
 Outlines
 Simulation

 Block Diagram Modeling—Direct Method

 Transfer Function (or ODE) Conversion to Block

Diagram Model

 Conversion of Mechanical Illustration to Block Diagram

Models

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 Simulation
 Most visual simulation environments perform three basic functions.

1. Graphical Editing: Used for the creation, editing, storage, and

retrieval of models. Also used to create model inputs, orchestrate
the simulation, and to present the model results.

2. Analysis: Used to obtain transfer functions, compute frequency

response, and evaluate sensitivity to disturbances.

3. Simulation: Numerical solution of the block diagram model.

 All models in a visual simulation environment are block-diagram

based, so a textual programming is not necessary;

 Simulation is the process through which the model equations are

numerically solved.

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 Simulation
 The simulation process consists of three steps.
Step 1. Initialization
Step 2. Iteration
Step 3. Termination

 In the initialization step, the equations for each block in the system
model are sorted according to the pattern in which the blocks are
connected.

 For example, a model consisting of three blocks (A, B, and C)

connected in series would have its equations sorted with the
Block A equations first, followed by those in Block B, and then
by those in Block C.

 In the iteration step, differential equations present in the model are

solved using numerical integration and/or differentiation, and the
simulation time is advanced.

ENGIN112
Discrete equations
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with Karnaugh Mapsalso solved in the iteration section.
September 19, 2003
 Simulation
 Results are presented in the termination step along with any other
post-processed calculations.

 Output may be saved to a file, displayed as a digital reading, or

graphically displayed as a chart, strip chart, meter readout, or even as
an animation.

 All visual modeling environments include the simulation function.

 Some of the most commonly used environments are MATRIXX/System

Build (National Instruments), MATLAB/Simulink (Mathworks), LabVIEW
(National Instruments), VisSim (Visual Solutions), and Easy5(Boeing).

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 Block Diagram Modeling—Direct Method
 The direct method for block diagram modeling is well suited for the
modeling of simple, single discipline models or of multidiscipline
models with minimal coupling between disciplines.

 Normally, the starting point in these applications is either a set of linear

ordinary differential equations, a transfer function, or an illustration of
the system itself.

Transfer Function (or ODE) Conversion to Block Diagram

Model

 The procedure for converting a transfer function (or ODE) to a block

diagram model is presented in this section as a six-step process.

EXAMPLE 7.1 The transfer function and initial conditions are given as

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 Block Diagram Modeling—Direct Method
Solution
Step 1. In problems like this, it will be simpler if we factor out the leading
coefficients of the Num(s) and Den(s) to make them both monic
polynomials.
A monic polynomial has its highest s-power coefficient equal to 1.
The monic form for T(s) is written as

The resulting block diagram is

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 Block Diagram Modeling—Direct Method

Step 2. From step 1, write the state equation (SE) as the differential
equation relating the input, r(t),to the state, x(t), as

Step 3. Begin constructing the block diagram by placing ny-integrator

blocks in series and connect them from left to right.

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 Block Diagram Modeling—Direct Method

Step 4. Solve the state equation from step 2 for the highest derivative of
the state variable, in this case we’d solve for as,

The resulting updated block diagram is

Notice the diagram that

all feedbacks at the
summing junction are
negative, (i.e. -1.6, -2).
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 Block Diagram Modeling—Direct Method
Step 5. From step 1, write the output equation (OE) as the differential
equation relating the output, y(t),to the state, x(t), and its derivatives as.

Resulting to

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 Block Diagram Modeling—Direct Method
Step 6. Add the initial conditions to the block diagram in step 5

The following output initial conditions were given as

The two output initial conditions are written in terms of the output equation
evaluated at t= 0. The two equations are presented here.

The block diagram is

completed by adding the
initial conditions to the
integrators in the block
diagram
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 A Mass-Spring Damper System Example
EXAMPLE 7.2 A mass–spring–damper system defined by its free-body
equations is to be modeled as a block diagram. Prior to application of the
input signal, F(t),the system is initially at rest with the initial conditions

Solution

From the figure  F (t )  F (t )  F (t )  F (t )

k B

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 A Mass-Spring Damper System Example

For this example, we will take the mass displacement, x(t),as the output,
y(t).With some manipulation, the state equation for the mass–spring–
damper system is written as

Divide by M

Noting that the equation is

second order, we will begin
construction of the block
diagram with two integrators as

Note the input has been scaled by

1/M before entering the summing
junction and the Δx input to the
spring has been represented using
a summing junction to remove the
initial displacement,
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 A Mass-Spring Damper System Example
In this last step, we apply the initial conditions to each of the two
states using the Output Equation (OE): y(t) = x(t) .

Adding the initial

condition information
to the block diagram
from step 5 produces
the completed block
diagram

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Thank You For Your Attention!