Digital Switching
MIAN AHMED YASER
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
CIIT LAHORE
SINGLE STAGE NETWORKS
• A single stage network having M inlets and N
outlets with a matrix of cross-points
• These may be relays or contacts of cross bars
Number of Cross-points
• Fig 3.11 shows full availability i.e. no calls are lost
unless all outgoing trunks are busy
• Maximum possible simultaneous connections is
the lesser of M and N
• If M=N then, the number of cross-points is C1=N2
• So cost increases as the square of the size of
switch
• Efficiency=N/N2=1/N (Proportion of cross-points
used at a particular time)
Efficiency
• If there are 100 inlets and 100 outlets then
the number of cross-points will be 10,000
• Only 100 CPs are used at a time which 1%
Efficiency
• So several stages are used for exchanges of
large customer base
• Half of these CPs are already redundant (j,k)
or (k,j)
Triangular Cross-point matrix
C1= (1/2 ) N(N-1)
But, Triangular switches are not used as trunks are used on one-way basis i.e.
ringing tone and ringing current have to be sent on separate one-way trunks
GRADING
• Availability: Number of outgoing Trunks to
which an incoming Trunk can obtain
connection is AVAILABILITY
• If required GoS is achieved by having sufficient
number of Trunks on each route, we have a
limited availability
Twenty Trunks connected in two
separate groups to switches of
availability 10
Later –Choice outlets are connected as
they have the least Traffic
This technique provides a GoS of 0.01 which we have only 16 trunks available
THIS TECHNIQUE IS CALLED GRADING
LINK SYSTEMS
• There is only one link between each primary and each secondary switch
• If available link is in use, a new request for the outgoing trunk can not be
fulfilled
• This is BLOCKING or MISMATCH
• Probability of Blocking is very High so we should have more stages
CONDITIONAL SELECTION
• In a Multi-stage network, it is possible to
encounter congestion at a later stage
• So, CONDITIONAL SELECTION is used i.e. a
marker does not set up a connection until it
has checked the busy/free status of the
outgoing trunk
TWO STAGE NETWORKS
Incoming Trunks: N
Outgoing Trunks: N
Primary switches have ‘n’ inlets and secondary switches have ‘n’ outlets
Number of Primary Switches (g)=Number of Secondary Switches=Number of
outlets per primary switch=Number of inlets per secondary switch
Where, g=N/n
Number of CPs per primary switch=Number of CPs per secondary switch=gn=N
Total CPs =C2=2gN=2N2/n
Since there is one link between each Primary and Secondary switch, Number of
Links =Number of Primary Switches X Number of Secondary Switches i.e.
Number of Links= g2=(N/n)2
• If Number of links is equal to the number of
incoming and outgoing trunks, then g2=N
• Or n= 𝑁
3
• So the Total Number of Cross-points is C2=2𝑁 2
EXAMPLE 5.3
THREE STAGE NETWORKS
Three Stage Networks
• There is one link from each Primary Switch to
each Secondary Switch
• And One link from each Secondary Switch to
each Tertiary Switch
• Probability of being unable to setup a call due
to blocking is very less than Two-Stage
networks
Three Stage Network
• Consider a 3-stage network, with N incoming
trunks and N outgoing trunks
• Primary switches have n inlets and tertiary
switches have n outlets, then
• Number of Primary Switches (g1)=Number of
Tertiary Switches (g3)=N/n
• Then the Number of Secondary Switches is
g2=N/(N/n)=n
• Which is also equal to the number of outlets per
primary switch=Number of inlets per tertiary
switch
3-Stage Networks
• Number of Cross-points in Primary Stage=n2(N/n)=nN
• Number of Cross-points in Secondary Stage=
n(N/n)2=N2/n
• Number of Cross-points in Tertiary stage=n2(N/n)=nN
• TOTAL Number of Cross-points is=N(2n+N/n)
• Differentiating the above expression w.r.t. n and
equating to 0, shows that we get minimum Cross-
𝑁
points when n=
2
3 3 −1
• Then, C3=2 2 𝑁 = 2 C2= 2 𝑁 𝐶1
2 2 2
3-Stage Concentrator
• M>N
• Each Primary switch has m inlets
• Each Tertiary switch has n outlets
• Number of Primary switches=M/m
• Number of Tertiary switches =N/n
• Suppose there are ‘g2’ secondary switches
then
Cross-points in a 3 stage concentrator
• Cross-points per primary switch=m g2
𝑀 𝑁
• Cross-points per secondary switch=
𝑚 𝑛
• Cross-points per tertiary switch=g2 n
• TOTAL number of Cross-points=C3
𝑀 𝑀𝑁 𝑁
• C3= 𝑋 𝑚 𝑔2 + 𝑔2 𝑋 + 𝑋 𝑔2 𝑛
𝑚 𝑚𝑛 𝑛
𝑀𝑁
• =g2 𝑀 + 𝑁 +
𝑚𝑛
Cross-points in a 3 stage concentrator
• Since, M>N, let Number of A links = Number of B links=N
𝑀 𝑁
• N=g2 = g2
𝑚 𝑛
𝑀
• So, g2=n and m=n
𝑁
𝑁 2
• C3=(M+N) n +
2
• Differentiating w.r.t. n to find minimum gives
𝑀 𝑁
• m= , n=
𝑀+𝑁 𝑀+𝑁
• C3=2𝑁 𝑁 + 𝑀
• To obtain an expander, exchange M with N and m with n
EXAMPLE 5.4
• Design a three stage network for connecting 100
incoming trunks to 100 outgoing trunks
𝑁
• n= = 100/2 =7.05
2
• Take n=5 or n=10
1. If n=5, there are 20 primary switches of size 5 x
5
5 secondary switches of size 20 X 20
20 tertiary switches of size 5 x 5
EXAMPLE 5.4
2. If n=10, there are 10 primary switches, 10
secondary switches and 10 tertiary switches,
each of size 10 x 10
EXAMPLE 5.5
• Design a 3 stage network for 100 incoming trunks
and 400 outgoing trunks
• 100/ 100 + 400 = 4.47
• 400/ 100 + 400 = 17.89
• m=4 or 5; n=16 or 20
1. If m=5, n=20, there are:
20 primary switches of size 5 x 5
5 secondary switches of size 20 x 20
20 tertiary switches of size 5 x 20
2. If m=4, n=16, there are:
25 primary switches of size 4 x 4
4 secondary switches of size 25 x 25
25 tertiary switches of size 4 x 16
Both the networks contain 4500 cross-points,
however the first contains more secondary
switches and will cause lesser blocking
PARTIALLY INTERCONNECTED THREE-
STAGE NETWORK
Application of Graph Theory to Link
Systems
Expansion and Concentration
• Local Exchanges
– Customers’ lines are lightly loaded so concentration is used as in Fig
5.17 (a)
• Tandem Exchanges
– Concentration is not used because trunks are heavily loaded
– Expansion is not used because an adequately low ‘grade of service’ is
achieved without it
• Trunk Transit or International Exchanges
– Long distance circuits are expensive, while trunks within an exchange
are cheaper
– So expansion is used in Trunk Transit and International Exchanges
BY USING A MODERATE EXPANSION , BLOCKING LOSS OF AN SN CAN BE
REDUCED AS COMPARED TO THE LOSS DUE TO CONGESTION IN
EXTERNAL TRUNKS. SUCH A NETWORK IS CALLED A QUASI-
NONBLOCKING NETWORK
*
EXAMPLE 5.8
• A fully interconnected three stage network
has 100 incoming trunks, 100 A links, 100 B
links and 100 outgoing trunks. At each stage, it
uses ten switches of size 10 x 10. As shown in
Example 5.7, the GoS in mode 1 is 0.01 when
the link occupancy is 0.39 E.
Call Packing
• When Links are allocated at random- more
blocking is observed
• When links are allocated non-randomly (in a
particular sequence)- less blocking is observed
• If each call is routed through the most heavily
loaded part of network (which can still take it),
subsequent calls will have a greater choice of
paths than if the calls were routed through the
less heavily loaded part of network. THIS IS
CALLED CALL PACKING
Re-arrangable Network
• As soon as a call ends, if there is an arrangement
that all the remaining connections were cleared
down and setup again using a call packing rule
• If some connections are already through heavily
loaded parts, then they need not be shifted
• It can be done as a part of selection process
when the next connection is set-up
• A network operated in this mode is called a re-
arrangable network
WIDE-SENSE NON-BLOCKING
NETWORKS
• Using re-arrangement, it is possible to obtain
networks which completely eliminate blocking.
Such networks are called Wide Sense Non-
Blocking
• Zero blocking is not guaranteed by the structure
of the network
• It is achieved by the control algorithm used to
setup connections
• CONDITION FOR A RE-ARRANGABLE FULLY
INTERCONNECTED THREE-STAGE NETWORK TO
BE NON-BLOCKING IS g2≥ 𝑛
STRICT SENSE NON-BLOCKING
NETWORKS
• If a network is non-blocking without the need
for re-arrangement, the network is said to be
non-blocking in strict sense
• Condition for Strict sense non blocking
network is 𝑔2 = 2𝑛 − 1
Three Stage Strictly Non-Blocking
Network
Number of Cross-points
• No. of Primary switches=N/n
• Number of Secondary Switches=2n-1
• Number of Tertiary Switches=N/n
• Number of Cross-points per primary switch=n(2n-1)
• Number of Cross-points per Secondary switch=(N/n)2
• Number of Cross-points per Tertiary Switch= (2n-1)n
• C3=(2n-1)(2N+(N/n)2)
• Differentiating w.r.t. n and equating to 0
• 2𝑛3 − 𝑁𝑛 + 𝑁 = 0
• n=2, N=16 and n=3 , N=27
• If n>>1, then 2𝑁 2 − 𝑁 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 𝑁/2
• 𝐶3 = 25/2 𝑁 3/2 − 4𝑁
For a network with large value of N
• Fewer cross-points will be required if multiple
stages are used
• If secondary network is replaced with a level
that itself consists of a three stage non-
blocking network
• Number of such levels is 2n-1
• Number of cross-points C5 will be minimum
when n=(2N)1/3
• C5=3x27/3N4/3-14N+25/3 N2/3
Five Stage Strictly Non Blocking
network
Example 5.9
• Design a strictly non-blocking network for 100
incoming and 100 outgoing trunks
• Choose a 3 stage network
• Minimum number of Cross-points are obtained
𝑁
when n= = 50=7.07
2
• Use n=5, so number of secondary switches=2n-
1=9
• Total number of cross-points is: C3=20 x5 x 9 + 9 x
20 x 20 + 20 x 9 x 5 = 5400
Example 5.10
• Design a strictly non-blocking network for 1000
incoming and 1000 outgoing trunks
• Choose a 5 stage network
• Minimum number of cross-points are used if n=(2N)1/3
• (2000)1/3=12.599, use n=10
• Number of levels needed is 2n-1=19
• Number of switches in 1st stage = Number of switches
in 5th stage=1000/10=100
• Each level has 100 incoming and 100 outgoing links
• Number of Cross-points is C5=100 x 10 x 19 + 19 x 5400
+100 x 19 x 10= 140600
EXAMPLE (TST SWITCH)
• A switch has 100,000 lines capacity. How does it accomplish this
capacity with a TST
• Use a TSI with 512 Time slots
• 256 time slots for even numbered and 256 for the odd numbered
• Switch maps each 8 bit time slot to 16 bits
• So bit rate at each TSI=256 x 16 x 8000=32.768 Mbps
• On the space stage take 25 x 25 Matrix
• So the capacity multiplier is 25
• Total bit rate handled=32.768 x 25=819200000 bits per second
• Divide it with bit rate of each voice channel i.e. 8000 bits per sec
• 819200000/8000=102400 lines are catered
