BLOOD CELLS

By,
shobhana pandian
Contents
 Composition of blood

 Blood cells

 Functions of blood
BLOOD -- A Life-Sustaining Fluid

• Humans can't live without blood.

• Without blood, the body's organs couldn't

get the oxygen and nutrients they need to
survive

• We couldn't keep warm or cool off, fight

infections, or get rid of our own waste
products.

• Without enough blood, we'd weaken and

die.
Vehicle of blood…

• Two types of blood vessels carry blood

throughout our bodies:

 The arteries carry oxygenated blood

(blood that has received oxygen from the
lungs) from the heart to the rest of the
body.

 The blood then travels through the veins

back to the heart and lungs, where it
receives more oxygen.
Constituents of blood…

• Blood accounts for 8% of the human body

weight.

• It has an average density of approximately

1060 kg/m3, very close to pure water's density
of 1000 kg/m3.

• The average adult has a blood volume of

roughly 5 liters (1.3 gal).

• Blood consists of 55 % plasma, and 45 % by

cells called formed elements.
Components of blood…
 Composed of plasma and several kinds of
cells (occasionally called corpuscles)

 These formed elements of the blood are

• erythrocytes (red blood cells),
• leukocytes (white blood cells), and
• thrombocytes (platelets).

 By volume, the red blood cells constitute

about 45% of whole blood, the plasma
about 54.3%, and white cells about 0.7%.
From where blood cells come?

• In babies and young children, blood cells

bone marrow

• But, as kids get older,blood cells in the

bone marrow of the
 vertebrae (the bones of the spine),
 ribs,
 pelvis,
 skull, sternum (the breastbone), and
parts of the humerus (the upper arm
bone) and femur (the thigh bone).
Plasma…
• The cells travel through the circulatory
system suspended in a yellowish fluid
called plasma.

• Plasma is 90% water and contains

nutrients, proteins, hormones, and waste
products.

• Whole blood is a mixture of blood cells and

plasma.
Diseases of clotting system….

• Perhaps the most well-known disease

related to plasma is hemophilia.

• An inherited change in one of the clotting

proteins (called factor VIII) leaves it
dysfunctional.

• This single change disrupts the entire

sequence of chemical reactions necessary
for clotting.
• As a result, people with hemophilia can
suffer severe swelling, bruising and
bleeding from simple day to day events
that the rest of the population take for
granted.
• Von Willebrand disease, the most
common hereditary bleeding disorder, also
involves a clotting-factor deficiency. It
affects both males and females.

• Other causes of clotting problems include

 chronic liver disease (clotting factors
are produced in the liver) and
 vitamin K deficiency (the vitamin is
necessary for the production of certain
clotting factors).
Hematology
• Hematology is the branch of internal
medicine, physiology, concerned with the
study of blood, the blood-forming organs,
and blood diseases.

• Blood diseases affect the production of

blood and its components, such as blood
cells, hemoglobin, blood proteins, the
mechanism of coagulation, etc.

• Physicians specialized in hematology are

known as hematologists.
Hematocrit
• If one takes a sample of blood, treats it with
an agent to prevent clotting, and spins it in a
centrifuge, the red cells settle to the bottom

• The white cells settle on top of them forming

the "buffy coat".

• The fraction occupied by the red cells is

called the hematocrit.

• Normally it is approximately 45%. Values

much lower than this are a sign of anemia.
Red blood cells
Red blood cells…
• The erythrocytes are the most numerous
blood cells i.e. about 4-6 millions/mm3.

• In man and in all mammals, erythrocytes

are devoid of a nucleus and have the
shape of a biconcave lens.

• In the other vertebrates (e.g. fishes,

amphibians, reptilians and birds), they
have a nucleus.
• The red cells are rich in hemoglobin, a
protein able to bind in a faint manner to
oxygen.

• Hence, these cells are responsible for

providing oxygen to tissues and partly
for recovering carbon dioxide produced
as waste.

• However, most CO2 is carried by plasma,

in the form of soluble carbonates.
Reference values of RBC…

• Women average about 4.8 million of these

cells per cubic millimeter (mm3; which is
the same as a microliter [µl]) of blood.

• Men average about 5.4 x 106 per µl.

• These values can vary over quite a range

depending on such factors as health and
altitude. (Peruvians living at 18,000 feet
may have as many as 8.3 x 106 RBCs per
µl.)
• RBC precursors mature in the bone
marrow closely attached to a macrophage.

• They manufacture hemoglobin until it

accounts for some 90% of the dry weight
of the cell.

• The nucleus is squeezed out of the cell

and is ingested by the macrophage.

• No-longer-needed proteins are expelled

from the cell in vesicles called exosomes.
• Thus RBCs are terminally differentiated; that is,
they can never divide.

• They live about 120 days and then are

ingested by phagocytic cells in the liver and
spleen.

Fate of RBC:
• Most of the iron in their hemoglobin is
reclaimed for reuse.

• The remainder of the heme portion of the

molecule is degraded into bile pigments and
excreted by the liver.
• Some 3 million RBCs die and are
scavenged by the liver each second.

• Red blood cells are responsible for the

transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Diseases of the Red Cell

• Too Few Cells Made

• Too Little Hemoglobin

• "Flawed" Hemoglobin

• Fragile Cells

• Premature Cell Destruction

1. Too Few Cells Made: Developmental Diseases
of Red Blood Cells
• Low Production

• Sometimes the bone marrow cannot keep up with

the demand for red blood cells due to destruction of
the stem cells themselves.

• When stem cells are missing, the marrow is an

empty place.

• All of the cell-making activity disappears.

• This is a extremely dangerous situation which will

be fatal if not corrected.
2. Too Little Hemoglobin: Nutritional
Diseases of Red Blood Cells

• Iron is Necessary to Make Hemoglobin

Nutritional diseases of the red blood cells
often cause problems in the development
of the cells.

• In cases of iron deficiency there is not

enough iron to complete the heme part of
hemoglobin.
 • Iron Deficiency
The cells without enough hemoglobin 
does not carry an adequate amount of
oxygen to all parts of the body.

The cells on the right were taken from a patient with iron deficiency.
3. Flawed Hemoglobin: Genetic Diseases of
Red Blood Cells

• Hemoglobinopathies
Hemoglobin, the main molecule in the red
blood cells, can show a number of genetic
differences.

• Sickle Cell Anemia

These long strands stretch the cells into
long "sickle" shapes found in sickle cell
anemia.
• Thalassemias
Other inherited disorders called
thalassemias cause an imbalance in the
supply of molecular parts (the globin)
which make up hemoglobin.

• Hypochromia
These are all very lightly colored. This
condition, called hypochromia, is because
they have too little hemoglobin to provide
the normal color to the cells.
4. Fragile Red Blood Cells
• Some diseases leave the red blood cells
fragile or stiff and inflexible.

• Cells which break easily and cells that are

too stiff to bend and squeeze through the
capillaries and the tiny filter-like pores in
the spleen are destroyed.

• If there are too many such cells, the bone

marrow can't keep up and only few red
cells stay in the circulation.
 Thalassemias

Thalassemia prevents hemoglobin from

forming properly the blood cells may become
misshaped and fragile.
5. Premature Destruction of
Red Cells: Parasites

• Malaria

 Red blood cells can be infected by various

bacteria or parasites.
 In warmer, mosquito-infested areas, the
malaria parasite may be passed to
humans through the bite of a mosquito.
 The growth cycle of this parasite can
cause massive, life-threatening loss of red
cells with fever and anemia.
• Liver Disease

Red blood cells can be damaged and

destroyed when problems occur in the
organs such as the kidneys or liver.
White blood cells
White Blood Cells….
• Leukocytes, or white cells, are responsible
for the defense of the organism.

• In the blood, they are much less numerous

than red cells.

• The density of the leukocytes in the blood

is 5000-7000 /mm3.
Types…
Lymphocytes…

• Lymphocytes are cells which, besides

being present in the blood, populate the
lymphoid tissues and organs too, as well
as the lymph circulating in the lymphatic
vessel.

• The lymphoid organs include thymus,

bone marrow (in birds bursa), spleen,
lymphoid nodules, palatine tonsils, Peyer's
patches and lymphoid tissue of respiratory
and gastrointestinal tracts.
• Most lymphocytes circulating in the blood
is in a resting state.

• They look like little cells with a compact

round nucleus which occupies nearly all
the cellular volume.

• The lymphocytes of the lymphoid tissues

and organs can be activated in a different
amount following antigenic stimulation.

• In the blood, lymphocytes are 20-40 % of

all leukocytes and are slight larger than
red blood cells.
• The lymphocytes are the main constituents
of the immune system which is a defense
against the attack of pathogenic micro-
organisms such as viruses, bacteria, fungi
and protista

• Lymphocytes yield antibodies and

arrange them on their membrane.
Monocytes… • This cell is the largest of the leukocytes
and is agranular.

• The nucleus is most often "U" or kidney

bean shaped; the cytoplasm is abundant
and light blue (more blue than this
micrograph illustrates).

• These cells leave the blood stream

(diapedesis) to become macrophages.

• As a monocyte or macrophage, these cells

are phagocytic and defend the body
against viruses and bacteria.
• These cells account for 3-9% of all
leukocytes.

• In people with malaria, endocarditis,

typhoid fever, and monocytes increase in
number.
Basophils…

• Basophils are the rarest leukocytes: less

than 1 %.

• They are quite small: 9-10 µm in diameter.

• Cytoplasm is very rich in granules which

take a dark purple color.

• The nucleus is bi- or tri-lobed, but it is hard

to see because of the number of granules
which hide it
Neutrophils…

• The neutrophil are the more common

leukocytes.

• They have a diameter of 12-15 µm.

• We can recognize them as their nucleus is

divided into 2 - 5 lobes connected by a fine
nuclear strand or filament.

• The cytoplasm is transparent because its

granules are small and faintly pink colored.
• Immature neutrophils have a band-shaped
or horseshoe-shaped nucleus and are
known as band cells.

• In the nucleus of the neutrophil of cells

from females, you may see an appendage
like a little drumstick (Barr body).

• It is the second X chromosome,

inactivated.
 • The eosinophils are quite rare in the
Eosinophils… blood.

• They have the same size as the

neutrophils.

• Generally their nucleus is bi-lobed.

• The cytoplasm is full of granules which

assume a characteristic pink-orange color

• As for the neutrophil, the nucleus is still

easily visible.
Diseases related to WBC…

• The term leukemia refers cancerous

conditions where there are too many
leukocytes in the blood.

• Neutropenia occurs when there aren't

enough of a certain type of white blood cell
to protect the body against bacterial
infections.

 People who take certain chemotherapy

drugs to treat cancer may develop
neutropenia.
• There are many leukemias.

• The cells begin to fill the marrow crowding

out other cell lines and pouring into the
bloodstream.
• Other, non-cancerous events may trigger
higher than normal numbers of white cells.

• They may be made in response to

infection, as shown here on the left.
Compare the concentration of neutrophils
to the normal smear on the right.
 • The main function of platelets, or
Platelets.. thrombocytes, is to stop the loss of blood
from wounds (hematostasis).

• To this purpose, they aggregate and release

factors which promote the blood coagulation.

• Among them, there are the serotonin which

reduces the diameter of lesioned vessels
and slows down the hematic flux, the fibrin
which trap cells and forms the clotting.
• Even if platelets appears roundish in
shape, they are not real cells.

• In the smears stained by Giemsa, they

have an intense purple color.

• Their diameter is 2-3 µm about, hence they

are much smaller than erythrocytes.

• Their density in the blood is 200000-

300000 /mm3.
Diseases of Platelets
• When there are too few platelets, a
condition known as thrombocytopenia, the
blood fails to clot properly.

• Often many tiny areas of bleeding may be

seen under the skin.

• Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP)

is a condition in which the immune system
attacks and destroys platelets.
Functions of blood
Functions of blood…

Blood performs important functions, some

of which are as under:-
• Supply of oxygen to cells / tissues

• Supply of nutrients such as glucose, amino

acids and fatty acids Removal of waste
such as carbon dioxide, urea and lactic acid

• Making body immune by circulation of white

cells, and detection of foreign material by
antibodies
• Regulation of core body temperature

• Hydraulic functions

• Aiding body's self-repair mechanism by

Coagulation

• Messenger functions like transportation of

hormones and the signaling of tissue damage

• Regulation of body pH (the normal pH of blood -

7.35 - 7.45) 
Oxygen transport

The reaction is reversible.

 Under the conditions of lower temperature, higher pH, and
increased oxygen pressure in the capillaries of the lungs, the
reaction proceeds to the right. The purple-red deoxygenated
hemoglobin of the venous blood becomes the bright-red
oxyhemoglobin of the arterial blood.

 Under the conditions of higher temperature, lower pH, and lower

oxygen pressure in the tissues, the reverse reaction is promoted
and oxyhemoglobin gives up its oxygen.
Clotting process…
Adhesion of White Blood Cells to Sites
of Inflammation

Selexys
Thank you