SENECA COLLEGE

School of Electronics &Computer Engineering

Fiber Optics Communications

CHAPTER-4
OPTICAL DETECTORS

By Harold Kolimbiris
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

INTRODUCTION (1)

 PHOTO DETECTION:
 Photo detection is the process whereby optical power is detected and
converted to electrical power.

 Photo-detector devices or optical detectors perform photo-detection.

Optical detectors perform the exact opposite function of that of the optical
sources; that is, they convert electric power into optical power.

 In any optical fiber communications system, the optical source is part of

the transmitter section, while optical detectors are part of the receiver
section.
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

INTRODUCTION (2)

 The performance of an optical detector incorporated into the receiver

section of an optical fiber communications system will be determined by
its ability to detect the smallest optical power possible (detector-
sensitivity) and to generate a maximum electric power at its output with an
absolute minimum degree of distortion (low-noise).

 the optical detector device, which is almost always utilized in an optical

receiver is the semiconductor photodiode.

 The two photodetector devices most commonly used in optical fiber

communications systems are the PIN and APD devices.
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

PIN – PHOTODETECTORS (1)

 PIN – is the abbreviation of P-region, I-Intrinsic- N-region semiconductor

diode.

 The principal theory on which a PIN photodetector device is based is

illustrated in Fig-1

 When a photon is incident upon a semiconductor photodetector device with

energy larger than the bandgap energy of that device, the energy of the
photon is absorbed by the bandgap and an electron-hole pair is generated
across the bandgap
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

PIN – PHOTODETECTORS (2)

 The energy of incident photon is given by,

hc
E ph 

 Where:
 E =Energy of the photon
ph

 h =Planck’s constant 6.62x 10-e34Ws 2

 c =Velocity of light 3x10e8 m/ s

  =Wavelength m

 E =Bandgap energy
g
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

PIN – PHOTODETECTORS (3)

 It is evident from the above equation the photon energy E ph is inversely

proportional to the wavelength 

 Therefore, there exists a wavelength at which the photon energy becomes

equal to the bandgap energy.

 At this photon energy level electron-hole generation will occur.

 The wavelength at which the photon energy becomes equal to bandgap

energy is called the “cut-off wavelength” c
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

PIN – PHOTODETECTORS (4)

 The cut-off wavelength in terms of band gap energy is expressed by,

1.24m
c 
Eg

 Semiconductor materials employed in the fabrication of photodetectors are

the same with the materials employed in the fabrication of optical sources.

 Such materials with their corresponding bandgap energy levels eV are listed
in the table 4-1.(see text)
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

PIN – PHOTODETECTORS (5)

 The cross-section area of a Silicon PIN-diode is shown in fig-1

Conduct Conduct

Photons

SiO2

i  Si( Absorbtion layer )

n  Si

Conduct

Silicon PIN diode. Fig-1

 When a photon impedes upon the photo-detector, the low bandgap

absorption layer absorbs the photon and an election-hole is generated.
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

PIN – PHOTODETECTORS (6)

 These photo-carriers, under the p Absorbtion

n
Layer
influence of a strong electric field
generated by a reverse bias
potential difference across the +
RL E
device, are separated thus forming -

a photo current intensity

proportional to the number of
incident photons.
Diode biasing. Fig-2

 The DC biasing of a PIN-diode

photo-detector is shown in fig-2
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

PIN – PHOTODETECTORS (7)

 The generated photocurrent from the PIN-photodetector device develops a

potential difference across the load resistance RL with a frequency
calculated by,
E ph
f 
h
 Where,
E ph =Photon energy is eV

h = Planck’s constant 6.62 x 10-34W.s2

f = Frequency
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

PIN – PHOTODETECTORS (8)

 PIN-Photodetector characteristics
 The fundamental PIN photodiode operational characteristics are:
 Quantum efficiency (),
 Responsivity (R),
 Speed,
 Linearity.
 Quantum efficiency () is defined by the number of electron-hole pair
generated per impeding photon, expressed by

N (e,  p  )

N ph
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

PIN – PHOTODETECTORS (9)

 Where:
 N (e,p)=Number electron-hole generation
 N = Number of photons
ph

 =Quantum efficiency

The number of electron-hole pair generation is translated to current by

 Where:
 I = Photocurrent (mA)
P
I P  q  N e
 q = Electron charge = 1.6x10-19C
 N = Number of electrons.
e
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

PIN – PHOTODETECTORS (10)

 Consequently, the number of incident photons is translated to light power

by,
Po  N ph  hv

 Where:
PO
 =Light power
N
 =Number of photons
ph

 h =Planck’s constant (6.628x10-38J.s)

 v =Velocity of light
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

PIN – PHOTODETECTORS (11)

 The efficiency of a PIN photodetector is proportional to the photon energy

absorbed by the absorption layer of the device.

 Larger photon energy requires a thicker absorption layer, allowing longer

time for electron-hole pair generation to take place.
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

PIN – PHOTODETECTORS (12)

 Response-Time (speed)
 Response time or speed of a photodetector is referred to as the time
required by the generated carriers, within the absorption region, to travel
that region under reverse bias conditions.

 The key parameter for determining photodetector device performance is

“Responsivity”.

 Responsivity is defined by the ratio of the current generated in the

absorption region per- unit optical power incident to the region.
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

PIN – PHOTODETECTORS (13)

 Responsivity is closely related to quantum efficiency and is expressed by


q
R 
E ph
 Where:
 R = Responsivity
  = Quantum efficiency
19
 q = Electron charge 1.59  10 C
 E = Energy of the photon. (hv)
ph
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

PIN – PHOTODETECTORS (14)

 The Responsivity of a PIN photo diode is the ratio of the generated photo current
per incident of unit-light power.

 A graphical representation of quantum efficiency () and responsivity is shown in

fig-3
0.9 Quantum efficiency ()
90% Responsivity (R)
0.8
70%
0.7

Responsibility-R (A/mW)

0.6 Si InGaAs
0.5 50%
0.4 Ge
0.3 30%
0.2

0.1 10%
0
0 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1500 1700

Quantum efficiency-Responsivity . Fig-3

CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

PIN – PHOTODETECTORS (15)

 Fig-3 illustrates the fundamental difference between responsivity and

quantum efficiency

 For different semiconductor materials, the responsivity is linear up to a

particular wavelength, then, drops quickly

 Beyond this point, the photon energy becomes smaller than the energy
required for electron-hole generation.
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

PIN – PHOTODETECTORS (16)

 Dark - current (Id)

 Dark - current is defined as the reverse leakage current of the
photodetector device in the absence of optical power impeding upon the
photodetector device.

 Dark current is an unwanted element caused by such factors as current

recombination within the depletion region and surface leakage current.

 The negative effects of such unwanted currents contribute to thermal shot-

noise.
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

PIN – PHOTODETECTORS (17)

 Shot noise
 In semiconductor devices, shot noise is the result of electron-hole
recombination and majority carrier random diffusion.

 The power spectral density of shot noise is proportional to the dark current
and is expressed by
 Where:
 Pn =Shotnoise power (W) Pn  2 I d qBW
 I =Dark-current (A)
d

 q=Electron charge (1.59x 10-19 C).

 B =Operating bandwidth
W
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

PIN – PHOTODETECTORS (18)

 Shot-noise-voltage V is expressed by
n
Vn  2 I d BW
 Where:
 V =Noise voltage
n

 B =Receiver operating bandwidth.

W
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

AVALANCH – PHOTODETECTORS (1)

 AVALANCHE PHOTODIODES (APD)

 Avalanche photodetectors are very similar to PIN - diodes with only one
exception; that is, the addition to the APD device of a high intensity
electric field region.

 In this region, the primary electron-hole pairs generated by the incident

photons are able to absorb enough kinetic energy from the strong electric
field to collide with atoms present in this region, thus generating more
electron-hole pairs.

 This process of generating more than one electron-hole pair from one
incident photon through the ionization process is referred to as the
“avalanche effect”.
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

AVALANCH – PHOTODETECTORS (2)

 It is apparent that the photocurrent generated by an APD photodetector

device exceeds the current generated by a PIN device by a factor referred
as the multiplication factor (M).

 Then the generated photo current is expressed by, I P  (qN e  ) M

 Where,
 I P=Generated photocurrent.
 q = Electron charge (1.59x10-19C)
 N =Carrier number
e

 M =Multiplication factor.
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

AVALANCH – PHOTODETECTORS (3)

 The multiplication factor depends on the physical and operational

characteristics of the photodetector device.

 Such characteristics are the width of the avalanche region, the strength of
the electric field and the type of semiconductor material employed

 The cross section area of a short - wavelength silicon APD device is

shown in fig-5
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

AVALANCH – PHOTODETECTORS (4)

 The cross section area of a short - wavelength silicon APD device is

shown in fig-4
Metal Photons Metal
Conduct Conduct

SiO2 (Insulator)
n  n
n
Guard P Guard
Area Avalanche region Area
Absorption
P Region
intrinsic

P

Conduct

APD Silicon photodetector device . Fig-4

CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

AVALANCH – PHOTODETECTORS (5)

 Gain
 The photocurrent gain in an APD device is a function of several elements
such as:
 (a) The wavelength of the incident photons,
 (b) the electric-field strength as a result of the reverse bias voltage,
 (c) the width of the depletion region and
 (d) the types of semiconductor materials used for the fabrication of the
APD device
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

AVALANCH – PHOTODETECTORS (6)

 The relationship of the photocurrent gain to biasing voltage for different

wavelengths is shown in fig-5
1000

500 Silicon n   p    p 
200 Wavelength (nm)

100 1060
Current gain

50 799.3
568.2
20

10

5
520.8
2 472.2

1
0 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Voltage (V)

Photocurrent gain versus reverse biasing voltage for different wavelengths

CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

AVALANCH – PHOTODETECTORS (7)

 The function of the guard rings in an APD structure is to prevent edge

breakdown around the avalanche region.

 When silicon materials are used for the fabrication of APD devices, they
exhibit operating wavelengths of between 400nm-to-900nm.

 When InGaAsP materials are used in the fabrication of APD devices, these
devices exhibit operating wavelengths of between 900nm-to-1600nm

 Photodetector gain, an important parameter of an APD device, is also

temperature dependent.
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

AVALANCH – PHOTODETECTORS (8)

 Photodetector Noise
 Avalanche photodetectors exhibit higher noise levels than PIN devices.

 This is a result of the ionization and photocurrent multiplication process

taken place within the APD device.

 The random nature of the incident photons on the APD device results in a
random photocurrent generation at the output of the device

 This current fluctuation is classified as shot-noise expressed by the

following formula.
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

AVALANCH – PHOTODETECTORS (9)

 Photodetector noise equation

d (i P ) 2
 2qI ( M ) 2
 Where: df
2
 (i ) = Mean-square-spectral density
P

 f = Frequency (Hz)

 q = Electron charge (1.6x10-19 C)

 * I = Primary Photocurrent
 (M) exp2 = Mean square of the avalanche gain

 * Primary photocurrent (I = Ip+Ibr +Idk)
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

AVALANCH – PHOTODETECTORS (10)

 Dark - Current
 Dark current is referred to as the current present at the photodetector
output at the absence of incident light.

 For an APD device, the dark current is multiplied by the device

multiplication factor (M), resulting in an overall reduction to device
sensitivity.

 The dark current is a non-linear function of the reverse-biased voltage at

avalanche breakdown levels and is referred to as tunneling current.
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

AVALANCH – PHOTODETECTORS (11)

 Dark – Current
 Different semiconductor materials exhibit different levels of tunneling
current resulting from different bandgap sizes.

 For example, devices with small bandgap measure small tunneling

currents in comparison to large bandgap devices measuring larger
tunneling currents

 A practical solution for a substantial reduction of the tunneling current is

the fabrication of structures with a separation between the absorption (low-
bandgap) region and the avalanche (high-bandgap) region.
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

AVALANCH – PHOTODETECTORS (12)

 Response-Time
 The response time of a photodetector device is the time a carrier takes to
cross the depletion region.

 For APD devices, the response time is almost double that of PIN-devices

 Response time is directly related to depletion region width.

 A typical response time of 0.5ns at 800nm-900nm has been achieved.

CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

AVALANCH – PHOTODETECTORS (13)

 Capacitance
 In a photodetector device, internal capacitance is a parasitic component
effecting the overall response time of the detector

 As with any other capacitance, junction capacitance of an APD device is

determined by the cross-section area and width of its depletion region and
is expressed by,
qAN
C
2(VR  V j )
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

AVALANCH – PHOTODETECTORS (14)

 Where:
 C =Junction capacitance (F)
  = Dielectric constant
 A = Depletion area
 N = Doping density (depletion-region)
 V = Reverse bias voltage (V)
R

V
 j
=Junction voltage
 q=Electron charge
CHAPTER-4:
OPTICAL DETECTORS

AVALANCH – PHOTODETECTORS (15)

 ADVANCED OPTICAL SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

 High demand optical networks require high performance optical devices. One way
to improve the performance of such solid-state devices as optical detectors is
through the Resonant-Cavity-Enhancement (RCE) method (Fabry-Perot).

 The utilization of the resonant micro-cavity principle for the design and
fabrication of such optical devices enhances the wavelength selectivity and
resonant optical field, ultimately leading to improved quantum efficiency
at the operating resonant wavelength

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