CHAPTER – 3(a)

ASSEMBLY systems
&
LINE balancing
 Manual Assembly Lines
 Each product consists of multiple components joined
together by various assembly processes
 These kinds of products are usually made on a manual
assembly line
 Factors favoring the use of assembly lines:
 High or medium demand for product
 Identical or similar products
 Total work content can be divided into work elements
 It is technologically impossible or economically
infeasible to automate the assembly operations
 Most consumer products are assembled on manual
assembly lines
 Why Assembly Lines are so Productive
 Specialization of labor
 Learning curve
 Interchangeable parts
 Components made to close tolerances
 Work flow principle
 Products are brought to the workers
 Line pacing
 Workers must complete their tasks within the cycle
time of the line which paces the line to maintain a
specified production rate
 Manual Assembly Line Defined

A production line consisting of a sequence of

workstations where assembly tasks are performed by
human workers as the product moves along the line
 Organized to produce a single product or a limited range
of products
 Each product consists of multiple components joined
together by various assembly work elements
 Total work content - the sum of all work elements
required to assemble one product unit on the line
 Manual Assembly Line

Configuration of a manual assembly line with n

manually operated workstations
Typical Products Made on Assembly Lines

Automobiles Personal computers

Cooking ranges Power tools
Dishwashers Refrigerators
Dryers Telephones
Furniture Toasters
Lamps Trucks
Luggage Video DVD players
Microwave ovens Washing machines
 Manual Assembly Line

 Products are assembled as they move along the line

 At each station a portion of the total work content is
performed on each unit
 Base parts are launched onto the beginning of the line
at regular intervals (cycle time)
 Workers add components to progressively build the
product
 Assembly Workstation

A designated location along the work flow path at which

one or more work elements are performed by one or
more workers

Typical operations performed at manual assembly stations

Adhesive application Electrical connections Snap fitting
Sealant application Component insertion Soldering
Arc welding Press fitting Stitching/stapling
Spot welding Riveting Threaded fasteners
 Assembly Workstation

 The work elements represent small portions of the total

work that must be accomplished to assemble the product.
 A given workstation also includes the tools (hand tools or
powered tools) required to perform the task assigned to
the station.
 Some workstations are designed for workers to stand,
while others allow the workers to sit.
 When the workers stand, they can move about the station
area to perform their assigned task.
 This is common for assembly of large products such as
cars, trucks and major appliances.
 Work Transport Systems

 There are two basic ways to accomplish the movement of

work units along a manual assembly line
 Manual
 Mechanized
 Both methods provide the fixed routing (all work units
proceed through the same sequence of stations).
 Manual Work Transport Systems
 Work units are moved between stations by the workers
without the aid of a powered conveyor
 Problems:
 Starving of stations
 Blocking of stations
 No pacing
 Types:
 Work units moved in batches
 Work units moved one at a time
 Mechanized Work Transport Systems
 Work units are moved by powered conveyor or other
mechanized apparatus
 Powered conveyors and other types of mechanized
material handling equipment are widely used to move
units along a manual assembly line
 Three major categories of work transport systems in
production lines are:
 Continuous Transport
 Synchronous Transport
 Asynchronous Transport
 Types of Mechanized Work Transport
 Continuous transport
 Conveyor moves at constant speed
 This method is common on manual assembly lines
 The conveyor usually runs the entire length of the
line.

 Continuous transport can be Implemented in two ways:

(1) Work units are fixed to the conveyor and
(2) work units are removable from the conveyor.
 Problems
 Starving of stations
 Incomplete units
 Types of Mechanized Work Transport
 Synchronous transport
 Work units are moved simultaneously with stop-
and-go (intermittent) motion to next stations
 This type of system is also known as intermittent
transport
 Synchronous transport is not common for manual
lines, due to the requirement that the task must be
completed within a certain time limit.
 This can result in incomplete units and excessive stress
on the assembly workers
 Despite its disadvantages for manual assembly lines,
synchronous transport is often ideal for automated
production lines with constant cycle time
Types of Mechanized Work Transport

 Asynchronous transport
 Work units are moved independently between
workstations
 At any moment some units are moving between
work stations while others are positioned at
stations
 Queues of work units can form in front of each
station
 Continuous Transport

Conveyor moves at constant velocity vc

 Synchronous Transport

All work units are moved simultaneously to their

respective next workstations with quick, discontinuous
motion
 Asynchronous Transport

Work units move independently, not simultaneously. A work

unit departs a given station when the worker releases it.
Small queues of parts can form at each station.
 Material Handling Equipment for
Mechanized Work Transport
Continuous transport Overhead trolley conveyor
Belt conveyor
Drag chain conveyor
Synchronous transport Walking beam
Rotary indexing machine
Asynchronous transport Power-and-free conveyor
Cart-on-track conveyor
Automated guided vehicles
 Line Pacing
 A manual assembly line operates at a certain cycle time
on average, each worker must complete his/her
assigned task within this cycle time
 Pacing of the workers is one of the reasons for success
of manual assembly line
 Pacing provides a discipline for the assembly line
workers that more or less guarantees a certain
production rate for the line
 Several levels of pacing:
1. Rigid pacing
2. Pacing with margin
3. No pacing
 Rigid Pacing

 Each worker is allowed only a certain fixed time each

cycle to complete the assigned task
 Allowed time is set equal to the cycle time less
repositioning time
 Synchronous work transport system provides rigid
pacing
 Undesirable aspects of rigid pacing:
 Incompatible with inherent human variability
 Emotionally and physically stressful to worker
 Incomplete work units if task not completed
 Pacing with Margin

 Worker is allowed to complete the task within a specified

time range, the upper limit of which is greater than the
cycle time
 On average, the worker’s average task time must
balance with the cycle time of the line
 How to achieve pacing with margin:
 Allow queues of work units between stations
 Provide for tolerance time to be longer than cycle time
 Allow worker to move beyond station boundaries
 No Pacing

 No time limit within which task must be completed

 Each assembly worker works at his/her own pace
 No pacing can occur when:
 Manual transport of work units is used
 Work units can be removed from the conveyor to
perform the task
 An asynchronous conveyor is used
 Coping with Product Variety
Single model assembly line (SMAL):
 A single model line is one that produces many units of one
product, and there is no variation in the product.
 Every work unit is identical, and so the task performed at
each station is the same for all product units.
 This line type is intended for products with high demand.
Batch model assembly line (BMAL):
 A batch model line produces each model in batches.
 Workstations are set up to produce the required quantity of
the first model, then the stations are reconfigured to
produce the next model, and so on.
 Hard product variety
 Coping with Product Variety
Mixed model assembly line (MMAL):
 A mixed model line also produces more than one model;
however, the models are not produced in batches.
Instead, they are made simultaneously on the same line.
 Models can be assembled simultaneously without
batching
 Many consumer products are assembled on mixed model
lines, Examples are automobiles and major appliances,
which are characterized by model variations,
differences in available options, and even brand name
differences in some cases.
 Soft product variety
 MMAL vs. BMAL

 Advantages of mixed model lines over batch models

lines:
 No lost production time between models
 High inventories typical of batch production are
avoided
 Production rates of different models can be
adjusted as product demand changes
 MMAL vs. BMAL

 Difficulties with mixed model line compared to batch

model line
 Line balancing problem more complex due to
differences in work elements among models
 Scheduling the sequence of the different models is a
problem
 Logistics is a problem - getting the right parts to
each workstation for the model currently there
 Cannot accommodate as wide model variations as
BMAL
 Line Balancing Problem

 Given:
 Total work content consists of many distinct work
elements
 The sequence in which the elements can be performed
is restricted
 The line must operate at a specified cycle time
 Problem:
 To assign the individual work elements to workstations
so that all workers have an equal amount of work to
perform
 Line Balancing Problem

 Two important concepts in line balancing are :

The separation of the total work content into minimum
rational work elements and
The precedence constraints that must be satisfied by
these elements.
 Based on these concepts performance measures are
defined for solutions to the line balancing problem
 Line Balancing Problem

 Minimum Rational Work Elements:

A minimum rational work element is a small amount of
work having a specific limited objective, such as adding a
component to the base part or joining two components or
performing some other small portion of the total work
content.
For example. drilling a through-hole in a piece of sheet
metal or fastening two machined components together
with a bolt and screw would he defined as minimum
rational work elements.
 Line Balancing Problem

 Precedence Constraints:
In addition to the variation in element times that make it
difficult to obtain equal service times for all stations, there
are restrictions on the order in which the work elements
can be performed.
 Some elements must be done before others.
 Components of Cycle Time Tc

Components of cycle time at several workstations on a

manual assembly line. At the bottleneck station, there
is no idle time.
 Components of Cycle Time Tc
 Repositioning time (Tr ): is the time required to reposition
the worker or work element
 Service time (Tsi):refers to the time to perform the
assigned task at each station where i is used to identify
station i, i = 1,2,3,…..n
 The repositioning time (Tr),must be subtracted from the
cycle time (Tc ), to obtain the available time remaining to
perform the actual assembly task at each workstation
 Some stations will have more work than others will,and
there will be at least one station at which Tsi is maximum.
This is sometimes referred to as the bottleneck station
 This maximum service time must be no greater than the
difference between the cycle time Tc, and the
repositioning time Tr
Max{Tsi} ≤ Tc – Tr , for i=1,2,3,….n.
 Line Balancing Algorithms
 Largest Candidate Rule
 Assignment of work elements to stations based on
amount of time each work element requires
 work elements are arranged in descending order
according to their Tek values
1) Assign elements to the worker at the first workstation by
starting at the top of the list and selecting the first element
that satisfies precedence requirements and does not
cause the total sum of Tek at that station to exceed the
allowable Ts.
(2) when no more elements can be assigned without
exceeding Ts ,then proceed to the next station
(3) repeat steps 1 and 2 for the other stations in turn until
all elements have been assigned.
 Line Balancing Algorithms
 Kilbridge and Wester Method
 Assignment of work elements to stations based on
position in the precedence diagram
 Elements at front of diagram are assigned first and
Kilbridge and Wester method provides a superior line
balance solution than the largest candidate rule
 Ranked Positional Weights
 Combines the two preceding approaches by
calculating an RPW for each element
The RPW takes into account both the Tek value and its
position in the precedence diagram.
 Mixed Model Assembly Lines

A manual production line capable of producing a variety of

different product models simultaneously and continuously
(not in batches)
 Problems in designing and operating a MMAL:
 Determining number of workers on the line
 Line balancing - same basic problem as in SMAL
except differences in work elements among models
must be considered
 Model launching - determining the sequence in which
different models will be launched onto the line
 Mixed Model Assembly Lines
 Determining the time interval between successive
launches is referred to as the launching discipline.
 Two alternative launching disciplines are available in
mixed model assembly lines
(1) variable rate launching: The time interval between the
launching of the current base part and the next is set
equal to the cycle time of the current unit
(2) fixed rate launching: The time interval between two
consecutive launches is constant. This launching
discipline is usually set by the speed of the conveyor and
the spacing between work carriers (e.g., hooks on a chain
conveyor that occur at regular spacing in the chain).
 Other Considerations in Line Design

 Line efficiency
 Management is responsible to maintain line operation
at efficiencies (proportion uptime) close to 100%
 Implement preventive maintenance
 Well-trained emergency repair crews to quickly fix
breakdowns when they occur
 Avoid shortages of incoming parts to avoid forced
downtime
 Insist on highest quality components from
suppliers to avoid downtime due to poor quality
parts
 Other Considerations - continued

 Methods analysis
 To analyze methods at bottleneck or other
troublesome workstations
 Subdividing work elements
 It may be technically possible to subdivide some work
elements to achieve a better line balance
 Sharing work elements between two adjacent stations
 Alternative cycles between two workers
 Other Considerations - continued

 Utility workers
 To relieve congestion at stations that are temporarily
overloaded
 Changing workhead speeds at mechanized stations
 Increase power feed or speed to achieve a better line
balance
 Preassembly of components
 Prepare certain subassemblies off-line to reduce work
content time on the final assembly line
 Other Considerations - continued

 Storage buffers between stations

 To permit continued operation of certain sections of
the line when other sections break down
 To smooth production between stations with large
task time variations
 Parallel stations
 To reduce time at bottleneck stations that have
unusually long task times
 Other Considerations - continued

 Zoning constraints - limitations on the grouping of work

elements and/or their allocation to workstations
 Positive zoning constraints
 Work elements should be grouped at same
station
 Example: spray painting elements
 Negative zoning constraints
 Elements that might interfere with each other
 Separate delicate adjustments from loud noises
 Other Considerations - continued

 Position constraints
 Encountered in assembly of large products such as
trucks and cars, making it difficult for one worker to
perform tasks on both sides of the product
 To address, assembly workers are positioned on both
sides of the line
 Alternative Assembly Systems

 Single-station manual assembly cell

 Worker teams
 Automated assembly systems
 Single-Station Manual Cell

 A single workstation in which all of the assembly work is

accomplished on the product or on some major
subassembly
 Common for complex products produced in small
quantities, sometimes one-of-a-kind
 Custom-engineered products
 Prototypes
 Industrial equipment (e.g., machine tools)
 Single-Station Assembly Cell

Assembly operations are performed on a base part at a

single location
 Assembly by Worker Teams

 Multiple workers assigned to a common assembly task

 Workers set their own pace
 Examples
 Single-station cell with multiple workers
 Swedish car assembly (job enlargement) - product
is moved through multiple workstations by AGVS,
but same worker team follows it from station to
station
 Reported Benefits of Team Assembly

 Greater worker satisfaction

 Better product quality
 Increased capability to cope with model variations
 Greater ability to cope with problems that require more
time rather than stopping the entire production line
 Disadvantage:
 Team assembly is not capable of the high production
rates of a conventional assembly line