Iron – carbon phase diagram
heat treatments
Allotropy of pure iron
• Iron is a relatively soft and ductile material.
• Iron has a melting point of 1539 C.
• Iron is allotropic material, which means that can
exist in more than one lattice structure depending
upon the temperature.
• In normal room temperature iron is BCC in lattice
arrangement. Whereas at 908 C it changes to FCC
structure. And then at 1403 C back to BCC structure
aganin.
Iron carbon equilibrium diagram
Micro structures
Austenite :
• Austenite is the solid solution of carbon in gamma iron.
• Austenite can dissolve maximum 2% carbon at 1130 C (2066 F)
• Austenite is not stable at room temperature.
• Austenite is nonmagnetic and soft
Ferrite
• Ferrite is BCC iron phase with very limited solubility for carbon. The maximum solubility is 0.025% at 723C.
• The dissolves only 0.008% carbon at room temperature.
• Ferrite is the softest structure that appears on Fe-C diagram.
Cementite
• Cementite (iron carbide), Fe3C contains 6.67% carbon by weight.
• It is a hard and brittle interstitial compound of low tensile strength.
• Cementite is the hardest structure that appears on the Fe-C phase diagram
Ledeburite
• It is the eutectic mixture of austenite and cementite.
• It contains 4.3% carbon.
• It is formed at 1130 C
Pearlite
• the pearlite contains of alternate layers of ferrite and cementite
• Pearlite is the product of austenite decomposition by an eutectoid reaction, thus pearlite is an eutectoid
mixture formed at 723C
Reactions in Fe-C phase diagram
Peritectic reaction
• The horizontal line at 1538 shows peritectic reaction
Eutectic reaction
• The horizontal line at 1130 shows eutectic reaction
Eutectoid reaction
• The horizontal line at 723C shows eutectoid reaction
TTT diagram
When steel is heated above the critical
temperature, (723 C) austenite is formed. This
austenite phase in steel is stable only above
lower critical temperature (723 C). When steel
is cooled below this temperature, austenite will
transform to some other phase.
This transformation of austenite is greatly
dependent upon the temperature and time of
transformation. A relationship between these
three quantities is given by a diagram called
TIME- TEMPERATURE- TRANSFORMATION
diagram or TTT diagram
The lowest part of the TTT curve shows the
transformation of austenite to matensite. In
eutectoid steel, martensite transformation
begins at Ms( 250 C) and ends at Mf (50 C)
CCT diagram
TTT curve is valid only when transformation of austenite
takes place isothermally. But most of the heat treatment
operations are performed by continuous cooling of steel
in cooling medium.
In fig various cooling rates are super imposed on TTT
curves and corresponding CCT curves ( shown as dotted
lines) for eutectoid steel.
Curve ‘a’ indicates slowest cooling as in annealing
process ( pearlite is obtained )
Curve ‘b’ indicates normalising ( medium pearlite –
sorbite is obtained)
Curve ‘c’ indicates typical oil quenching (sorbite and
troosite )
Curve d, e, &f are obtained by quenching in water
Curve ‘d’ shows cooling rate so fast so that only a part
of austenite transforms to fine pearlite( troosite),
whereas the rest of austenite transforms to martensite.
Curve ‘e’ and ‘f’ indicates very fast quenching the
structure remains austenite until the Ms line is reached
and changes to martensite between Ms and Mf
The cooling curve ‘e’ results in the formation of
martensite, but it just touches the nose of the TTT
curve. It is the minimum cooling rate required for the
transformation of austenite in to complete martensite
and is called critical cooling rate.
Heat treatments
The various heat treatment process are
1. Annealing Process
a.Full annealing
b.Spheroidizing annealing
c. Process Annealing
2. Normailsing
3. Hardening
4. Tempering
5. Auetempering
6. Martempering
7. Case Hardenig
a. Carburising
b. Nitriding
c. Cyaniding
d. Carbonitriding
e. Flame Hardening
f. Inductionn hardening
Steps in heat treatment process
All the heat treatment process involve the following steps in
this order
• Heating the material to a specified temperature.
• Holding the material at this temperature for a specified
period of time.
• Cooling the material according to a specified rate of
cooling
• A true heat treatment process does not involve any chemical change in the
material.
• The temperature to which a steel is heated, depends on the carbon content and
the process involved.
• The time taken is approximately 1 hour for 25mm thickness.
• The transformations in the properties takes place during cooling.
• The cooling rate is an important parameter which decides how the austenite
gets transformed. The resulting microstructure after the transformation decides
the properties of the material.
Annealing process
In annealing process the material is exposed to an elevated temperature for an extended time
period and then slowly cooled.
Purpose of annealing
• To relive stress
• To increase softness, ductility and toughness
• To produce specific microstructure.
Types of annealing process
Process annealing
Full annealing
Spherodizing annealing
Process annealing
Process annealing is used to soften and increase the
ductility of cold worked material to facilitate further
deformation ( improves machinability)
It is usually done between different stages of cold
working.
Process
• This process is used for steels having less than
0.25% carbon.
• Process consist of heating the specimen to the range of
550-650 C.
• It is kept ate this temperature for a certain duration and
cooled slowly in air.
• This process relives the effect of cold working. Reduces
hardness and improves ductility. This process is also
called sub-critical annealing.
Full annealing
Full annealing involves heating the steel to the austenite state
followed by very slow cooling. It is used to remove all structural
imperfections by complete recrystallization and to relieve the
stresses caused due to the cold working.
Process
Hypoeutectoid steels are heated above 910 C
The microstructure then converts in to austenite. This step is
called auestenitising.
Upon very slow cooling in the furnace (10-20 C/hour) austenite
decomposed to ferrite and cementite.
Along this, complete recrystallization occurs and the structure
get refined.
Hypereutecoid steels are heated above 723C.
Upon cooling austenite decomposes to coarse pearlite.
Spheroidising
This process is similar to process annealing. But results in
globular or spheroids of cementite in a matrix of ferrite. This
process is done to improve machinability for hypereutectoid
steels.
Process
The material is heated 30C below the eutectoid temperature
( lower critical temp).
It is held at this temperature for several hours and then
allowed to cool very slowly in the furnace.
Spheroidising is usually used for high carbon steels ( >0.6% C)
in which considerable fraction of cementite is present as
lamellae in pearlite, which gets transformed during the
process into rounded or spheroidal grains. The spheroidised
teel refers to softest state of steel.
This process is expensive and time consuming. It is used for
steels having higher carbon content like tool steels
Normalising
By controlling the fineness of pearlite, effect of dispersion
strengthening in steel can be managed. Normalising uses a faster
cooling rate than used in annealing, ie producing fine pearlite
Normalising is done to obtain relatively good ductility without
reducing hardness and strength. It is used as a finishing treatment
for steel giving higher strength obtained by annealing.
Process
The material is heated above 50C above the upper critical
temperature, after retaining the material at this temperature for
specific duration, it is allowed to cool in air (air quenching) to
room temperature. Upon heating microstructure completely
transforms to austenite and upon cooling at a faster rate, fine
pearlite I formed.
Normalising is applied to casting and forging as a stress relieving
process. This process also increases strength and machinability.
Hardening
This is a heat treatment process carried out to increase the hardness , strength and wear resistance of steel.
Hardness is obtained due to the formation of Martensite.
Process
• The first step in hardening is austenitising. Hypo eutectoid teel I headted above 910 and hyper eutectoid steel
is heated above 723.
• The component is held at this temperature for sufficient time.
• The redhot material is then cooled rapidly or quenched in water, oil or brine. The rapid cooling should have a
cooling rate greater than the critical cooling rate for the material.
• The quenching results in instantaneous formation of austenite to martensite and leads to higher hardness.
This is a heat treatment immediately follows hardening.
Tempering Steel subjected to hardening is normally very brittle so that
even slight impact may cause fracture. Hence it is necessary
to modify the properties and is done by tempering.
Tempering is done to reduce brittleness and to improve
toughness of hardened steel. It increases toughness by
relieving internal stresses developed during quenching.
Process
Tempering process involves re-heating the hardened
material to temperature below the lower critical
temperature followed by slow cooling. All hardened steels
are usually tempered immediately after hardening.
The tempering temperature varies from 150 to 680 C
depending on the purpose.
Austempering This is a special heat treatment process in which austenite
is completely transformed to bainite. Since the
transformation occurs at constant temperature, it is also
known as isothermal quenching.
Process
Autempering begins with heating the steel above
austenitising temperature. It is then quenched in molten
salt bath maintained at constant temperature within the
lower side of bainitic range (200-400). After holding the
steel in this temperature for sufficiently long time, it is
then cooled in air.
Austempering is used to harden and temper springs. To
obtain uniform and consistent hardness along with better
ductility toughness and higher impact strength
Martempering
This process is also called marquenching. It is similar to
autempering except that the component is slowely
cooled through the martensitic transformation range.it
is done to minimize the distortion, cracking and
residual stresses which may occur during conventional
hardening process.
Process
The steel which is austenised is cooled rapidly to a
temp range(180-250), just above the start of
martensitic range. This is done with the help of molten
salt bath. After holding in this bath for sufficient time,
the component is cooled in air to room temperature.
Ausforming is also known as low temperature thermo
mechanical treatement. Which involves the deformation of
Ausforming austenite in the metastable region of the TTT diagram.
A thermo mechanical treatment is carried out by the
simultaneous application of heat and a deformation process,
to an alloy in order to change its shape and refine the
microstructure.
Process
The steel is heated to austenitising temperature and then
quenched to metastable region, where plastic deformation is
carried out, without allowing transformation to take place.
The steel is deformed in excess of 50% usually by rolling and
then transformed to martensitie by quenching to room
temperature.
The ausforming process when applied to suitable steel
increases its strength without adverse effect on ductility and
toughness. Typical application are undercarriage of aircraft,
special springs and bolts.
Surface hardening methods
Since large number of gadget and machine parts are manufactured using steel, and since many of component
require a hard and wear resistant surface with a tough and shock resistant interior, surface treatments to steel
are important.
The hard wear resistant surface developed is called “CASE”
The interior which remains tough and shock resistant is called the “CORE”
• Diffusion methods
a. Carburising
b. Nitriding
c. Cyaniding
• Selective hardening methods
a. Flame hardening
b. Induction hardening
c. Laser hardening
d. Electron beam hardening
CARBURISING
Carburising involves impregnating the surface of the steel with carbon to a desired value. The carbon
content is usually is 1.25% after treatment and before it is 0.25%. This is a method of producing steel
having tough inner core and hard outer case. Components such as pin gears pistons and crank shafts are
hardened by this process. Case hardened steels are capable of absorbing shock loads as well as resisting
wear and abrasion.
Process
The process involves heating of steel above critical temperature for a prolonged duration, the carbon
penetrates into the to form a solid solution on the outer surface.
On the basis of carbon rich substance used, case hardening process can be classified in to
1. Solid or pack carburising
2. Gas carburising
3. Liquid carburising
Nitriding
Nitriding is mot effective for those alloy steels which contains stable nitride forming elements such as Al, Cr,
Mo, W. nitriding provides hardest case of all surface hardening process.
Process
The process involves heating the steel to about 650C and holding in an atmosphere of ammonia for some time.
Anhydraus ammonia gas is passed into the furnace at about 550C, where it dissociates to nitrogen and
hydrogen. The time varies from 21 to 100 hours, depending on the desired case depth and size of the
component. After nitriding the component is allowed to cool in the furnace in the presence of ammonia.
Nitriding improves corrosion resistance, provides very high hardness
Nitriding is normally performed on dies, mandrels, gauges etc.
Cyaniding
This is a special case hardening process in which the mild steel absorbs carbon and nitrogen to obtain
hard surface.
Process
The parts to be treated are immersed in a liquid bath (800 – 960C) of NaCN with the concentration
varying between 25%- 90%. A measured amount of air is passed through the molten bath. NaCN
reacts ith oygen in the air and is oxidized. Carbon and nitrogen then formed in atomic form diffuse in
to the steel and give high wear resistant layer of carbonitride phase. Usually the process needs 30 -
90 minute for completion for obtaining a case depth of 0.5-2mm.
After cyaniding, the piece is taken out and quenched in water or oil. Final operation is low
temperature tempering.
Flame hardening
In this process some areas of a component is heated above
critical temperature by oxy acetylene flame and simultaneously
quenched by spraying water under pressure. The depth of
hardened case depends on the temperature of the flame, its
heating time, time elapsed between heating and cooling.
Advantages
Rapid process
Suitable for hardening large and bulky parts
Disadvantages
The depth of penetration is difficult to control
Only certain steel can be hardened by this method
Induction Hardening
By this process, one can get a hard and wear resistant
surface with a soft core in steel. The process involves
induction heating using various shapes of induction heating
coils. The job to hardened is placed in an induction coil, that
comprises several turns of copper wire. A high frequency
current is passed through the copper block this produces
heating effect on the job surface. Temperature produced is
about 750 – 800C. The heated surface is immediately
quenched with spray of water.
Advantages
Fast process
Irregular shapes can be handled
The thickness of case can be controlled more accurately
Disadvantages
The hardness depends on the carbon content in the steel.
Laser hardening
Laser beam hardening is a surface hardening process which is a
variant of flame hardening. A phosphate coating is applied over
the steel component to facilitate absorption of laser energy. The
selected areas of the part are exposed to laser energy causing
the outer layer heated to about 900 – 1400 C. By varying the
power of laser, the depth of heat absorption can be controlled.
The parts are then self quenched and tempered.
Electron beam hardening
Electron beam hardening is similar to laser beam hardening.
The heat source is a beam of high- energy electrons. The
beam is manipulated using electromagnetic coils.
Hardenabilty
Steel becomes hard after quenching, but the hardness decreases along the cross section.
Hardenability is defined as the ability of steel to develop a hardened layer across the cross section. In
other words, it is a measure of thickness of steel that can be hardened by quenching.
• A material is said to have hardenability when the decrease in hardness towards centre is very low
• A good hardenability means that even thicker sections can be uniformly hardened. Alloying has a
very good effect on hardenability.
Jominy – end quench test
The most popular method to determine hardenability of steel is called
jominey end quench test.
• A standard specimen of 25.4mm dia 100mm length is heated
above the austenitising temperature for a specific period of time.
• The specimen is removed from the furnace and quickly transferred
to a fixture as shown in the figure.
• The lower end of the specimen is quenched with a jet of water at a
specific flow rate.
• This results in different rates of cooling along the length of the
specimen from the most severe water quench at bottom end to air
cooling at the other end.
• Surface hardness is measured along the length of specimen and a
curve is plotted between hardness and distance from the quenched
end
• The resulting curve is called jominy curve or hardenability curve
