CHAPTER 4

consciousness

psychology
fourth edition
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Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White All rights reserved.
 Learning Objectives
4.1 What does it mean to be conscious, and are there different levels of
consciousness?
4.2 Why do people need to sleep, and how does sleep work?
4.3 What are the different stages of sleep, including the stage of dreaming and
its importance?
4.4 How do sleep disorders interfere with normal sleep?
4.5 Why do people dream, and what do they dream about?
4.7 What is the difference between a physical dependence and a psychological
dependence on a drug?
4.8 How do stimulants and depressants affect consciousness and what are the
dangers associated with taking them, particularly alcohol?
4.9 What are some of the effects and dangers of using hallucinogens, including
marijuana?

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 Consciousness
LO 4.1 Consciousness and Levels of Consciousness

• Consciousness
– a person’s awareness of everything that is
going on around him or her at any given
moment
• Waking consciousness
– state in which thoughts, feelings, and
sensations are clear and organized, and the
person feels alert

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 Consciousness
LO 4.1 Consciousness and Levels of Consciousness

• Altered state of consciousness

– state in which there is a shift in the quality or
pattern of mental activity as compared to
waking consciousness

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 ISLAMIC OVERVIEW
• Human is created by Allah with dual
nature (“conscious” physical nature and
“unconscious” spiritual nature)
• Human is responsible for his behaviours
because of his consciousness, but this
conscious behaviours are influenced by an
unconscious spiritual factors such as
“iman” which the man “consciously”
choose to develop
• Soul plays an important role in
consciousness
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 Necessity of Sleep
LO 4.2 Why Sleep and How Sleep Works

• Circadian rhythm: a cycle of bodily rhythm

that occurs over a twenty-four-hour period
– “circa”: about
– “diem”: day

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 Necessity of Sleep
LO 4.2 Why Sleep and How Sleep Works

• Microsleeps: brief sidesteps into sleep

lasting only a few seconds
• Sleep deprivation: any significant loss of
sleep
– results in irritability and problems with
concentration

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Figure 4.1 Sleep Patterns of Infants and Adults

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 Necessity of Sleep
LO 4.2 Why Sleep and How Sleep Works

• Restorative theory: theory of sleep

proposing that sleep is necessary to the
physical health of the body and serves to
replenish chemicals and repair cellular
damage

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 Stages of Sleep
LO 4.3 Stages of Sleep and Dreaming

• Rapid eye movement (REM): stage of

sleep in which the eyes move rapidly
under the eyelids and the person is
typically experiencing a dream
• NREM (non-REM) sleep: any of the stages
of sleep that do not include REM

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 Brain Wave Patterns
LO 4.2 Why Sleep and How Sleep Works

• Electroencephalograph (EEG)
– allows scientists to see the brain wave activity
as a person passes through the various stages
of sleep and to determine what type of sleep
the person has entered
 alpha waves: brain waves that indicate a state of
relaxation or light sleep
 theta waves: brain waves indicating the early stages
of sleep
 delta waves: long, slow waves that indicate the
deepest stage of sleep
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Figure 4.2 Brain Activity During Sleep

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 Stages of Sleep
LO 4.3 Stages of Sleep and Dreaming

• N1 (R&K Stage 1): light sleep

– may experience:
 hypnagogic images: hallucinations or vivid visual
events
 hypnic jerk: knees, legs, or whole body jerks
• N2 (R&K Stage 2): sleep spindles
– sleep spindles: brief bursts of activity only
lasting a second or two

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 Stages of Sleep
LO 4.3 Stages of Sleep and Dreaming

• N3 (R&K Stages 3 and 4): delta waves

pronounced
– deepest stage of sleep: 50 percent or more of
waves are delta waves
– body at lowest level of functioning
– time at which growth occurs

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 REM Sleep and Dreaming
LO 4.3 Stages of Sleep and Dreaming

• REM sleep is paradoxical sleep (high level

of brain activity)
– If wakened during REM sleep, sleepers
almost always report a dream.
• REM rebound: increased amounts of REM
sleep after being deprived of REM sleep
on earlier nights

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 LO 4.4 Stages of sleep

Menu
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 Sleep Disorders
LO 4.4 Sleep Disorders and Normal Sleep

• Nightmares
– bad dreams occurring during REM sleep
• REM behavior disorder
– mechanism that blocks the movement of the
voluntary muscles fails
– allows the person to thrash around, or even
get up and act out nightmares

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 Stage Four Sleep Disorders
LO 4.4 Sleep Disorders and Normal Sleep

• Sleepwalking (somnambulism)
– episode of moving around or
walking around in one’s sleep
– occurs in deep sleep
– more common among children
than adults

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 Stage Four Sleep Disorders
LO 4.4 Sleep Disorders and Normal Sleep

• Night terrors
– the person experiences extreme fear and
screams or runs around during deep sleep
– doesn’t wake fully
– relatively rare disorder

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 Problems during Sleep
LO 4.4 Sleep Disorders and Normal Sleep

• Insomnia: the inability to get to sleep, stay

asleep, or get a good quality of sleep
• Sleep apnea: disorder in which the person
stops breathing for nearly half a minute or
more
– continuous positive airway pressure device
(CPAP)

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 Problems during Sleep
LO 4.4 Sleep Disorders and Normal Sleep

• Narcolepsy: sleep disorder

in which a person falls
immediately into REM
sleep during the day
without warning
– cataplexy: sudden loss of
muscle tone

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Psychology, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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 Dreams
LO 4.5 Why People Dream and What They Dream about

• Freud: dreams as wish fulfillment

– manifest content: the dream itself
– latent content: the true, hidden meaning of a
dream

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 Dreams
LO 4.5 Why People Dream and What They Dream about

• Activation-synthesis hypothesis: dreams

are created by the higher centers of the
cortex to explain the brain stem’s
activation of cortical cells during REM
sleep periods

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Figure 4.4 The Brain and Activation-Synthesis Theory
According to the activation-synthesis theory of dreaming, the pons in the brainstem sends random signals to
the upper part of the brain during REM sleep. These random signals pass through the thalamus, which sends
the signals to the proper sensory areas of the cortex. Once in the cortex, the association areas of the cortex
respond to the random activation of these cortical cells by synthesizing (making up) a story, or dream, using
bits and pieces of life experiences and memories

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 Dreams
LO 4.5 Why People Dream and What They Dream about

• Activation-information-mode model (AIM)

– revised version of the activation-synthesis
explanation of dreams
– information that is accessed during waking
hours can have an influence on the synthesis
of dreams

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• Ibn Hazm and Ibn Miskawayh: Dreams are
influenced by what we sense and stored in
the memory

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 Psychoactive Drugs
LO 4.7 Physical and Psychological Dependence on a Drug

• Psychoactive drugs: drugs that alter

thinking, perception, and memory
• Physical dependence
– tolerance: more and more of the drug is
needed to achieve the same effect
– withdrawal: physical symptoms resulting from
a lack of an addictive drug in the body
systems
 can include nausea, pain, tremors, crankiness, and
high blood pressure
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 Psychoactive Drugs
LO 4.7 Physical and Psychological Dependence on a Drug

• Psychological dependence: the feeling

that a drug is needed to continue a feeling
of emotional or psychological well-being

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 Stimulants
LO 4.8 How Do Stimulants and Depressants Affect Consciousness?

• Stimulants: drugs that increase the

functioning of the nervous system
– amphetamines: drugs that are synthesized
(made in labs) rather than found in nature
– cocaine: natural drug; produces euphoria,
energy, power, and pleasure
– nicotine: active ingredient in tobacco
– caffeine: the stimulant found in coffee, tea,
most sodas, chocolate, and even many over-
the-counter drugs
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 Nicotine
LO 4.8 How Do Stimulants and Depressants Affect Consciousness?

• The harmful effects of nicotine are now

well known, but many people continue to
smoke or chew tobacco in spite of
warnings

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 Depressants
LO 4.8 How Do Stimulants and Depressants Affect Consciousness?

• Depressants: drugs that decrease the

functioning of the nervous system
– barbiturates: depressant drugs that have a
sedative effect
– benzodiazepines: drugs that lower anxiety
and reduce stress
– Rohypnol: the “date rape” drug

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 Alcohol
LO 4.8 How Do Stimulants and Depressants Affect Consciousness?

• Alcohol: the chemical resulting from

fermentation or distillation of various kinds
of vegetable matter
– often mistaken for a stimulant, alcohol is
actually a CNS depressant

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Psychology, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Psychology, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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 Narcotics
LO 4.9 Dangers of Narcotics, Hallucinogens, and Marijuana

• Narcotics
– opium-related drugs
– suppress the sensation of pain by binding to
and stimulating the nervous system’s natural
receptor sites for endorphins.
 opium: substance made from the opium poppy and
from which all narcotic drugs are derived
 morphine: narcotic drug derived from opium; used
to treat severe pain
 heroin: narcotic drug derived from opium that is
extremely addictive
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 Hallucinogens
LO 4.9 Dangers of Narcotics, Hallucinogens, and Marijuana

• Psychogenic Drugs
– drugs including hallucinogens and marijuana
that produce hallucinations or increased
feelings of relaxation and intoxication
 hallucinogens: drugs that cause false sensory
messages, altering the perception of reality
 LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide): powerful
synthetic hallucinogen
 PCP: synthesized drug now used as an animal
tranquilizer that can cause stimulant, depressant,
narcotic, or hallucinogenic effects
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 Hallucinogens
LO 4.9 Dangers of Narcotics, Hallucinogens, and Marijuana

• Psychogenic Drugs (cont’d)

 MDMA (Ecstasy or X): designer drug that can have
both stimulant and hallucinatory effects
 Stimulatory hallucinogenics: drugs that produce a
mixture of psychomotor stimulant and
hallucinogenic effects

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 Marijuana
LO 4.9 Dangers of Narcotics, Hallucinogens, and Marijuana

– marijuana (pot or weed): mild hallucinogen

derived from the leaves and flowers of a
particular type of hemp plant

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Psychology, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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 END OF CHAPTER 4

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 Exercises

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 LO 4.1

The word "consciousness" has many different meanings,

but most psychologists define it in terms of:

1. Emotion.
2. Motivation.
3. Attention.
4. Personality.

43
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 LO 4.1

The word "consciousness" has many different meanings,

but most psychologists define it in terms of

1. Emotion
2. Motivation
3. Attention (p. 136)
4. Personality

44
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 LO 4.1

All of the following are altered states of consciousness

EXCEPT:

1. Sleep
2. Drug use
3. Hypnosis
4. Waking consciousness
5. Meditative state

45
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 LO 4.1

All of the following are altered states of consciousness

EXCEPT:

1. Sleep
2. Drug use
3. Hypnosis
4. Waking consciousness (p. 136)
5. Meditative state

46
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 LO 4.2

Your brain waves are being monitored in a sleep

laboratory. The experimenter has just left you alone and
you try to settle down. Typical of a person who is awake
and alert, your EEG shows __________ waves.

1. Alpha
2. Beta
3. Sleep spindle
4. Delta waves

47
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 LO 4.2

Your brain waves are being monitored in a sleep

laboratory. The experimenter has just left you alone and
you try to settle down. Typical of a person who is awake
and alert, your EEG shows __________ waves.

1. Alpha
2. Beta (p. 143)
3. Sleep spindle
4. Delta waves

48
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 LO 4.2

Your grandfather has been having trouble sleeping. He tells

you that he heard an advertisement for a pill which
contains a hormone that facilitates sleep. Unfortunately, he
can't remember the name of the hormone. You should tell
him that it is:

1. Estrogen.
2. Androgen.
3. Melatonin.
4. Insulin.

49
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 LO 4.2

Your grandfather has been having trouble sleeping. He tells

you that he heard an advertisement for a pill which
contains a hormone that facilitates sleep. Unfortunately, he
can't remember the name of the hormone. You should tell
him that it is:

1. Estrogen.
2. Androgen.
3. Melatonin. (p.138)
4. Insulin.

50
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 LO 4.2

After an hour of deepening sleep, something odd happens.

What is it?

1. You cycle backward to stage 3, then stage 2, then to a

new, fifth stage.
2. You awaken briefly, jerk involuntarily, then immediately
fall back into deep sleep.
3. Sleep spindles occur, followed by a hypnogogic state.
4. Your brain wave pattern takes on the appearance of an
individual who has recently died.

51
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 LO 4.2

After an hour of deepening sleep, something odd happens.

What is it?

1. You cycle backward to stage 3, then stage 2, then to

a new, fifth stage. (p. 145)
2. You awaken briefly, jerk involuntarily, then immediately
fall back into deep sleep.
3. Sleep spindles occur, followed by a hypnogogic state.
4. Your brain wave pattern takes on the appearance of an
individual who has recently died.

52
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 LO 4.2

What section of the brain instructs the pineal gland to

release melatonin as nighttime approaches and daylight
decreases?

1. Suprachiasmatic nucleus
2. Hippocampus
3. Thalamus
4. Endocrine system
5. Cerebellum

53
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 LO 4.2

What section of the brain instructs the pineal gland to

release melatonin as nighttime approaches and daylight
decreases?

1. Suprachiasmatic nucleus (p. 138)

2. Hippocampus
3. Thalamus
4. Endocrine system
5. Cerebellum

54
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 LO 4.2

The stage of sleep that is characterized by sleep spindles,

or sudden bursts of electrical activity in the brain, is called:

1. N1 (R&K Stage 1).

2. N2 (R&K Stage 2).
3. N3 (R&K Stages 3 and 4).
4. R (R&K REM).
5. REM sleep.

55
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 LO 4.2

The stage of sleep that is characterized by sleep spindles,

or sudden bursts of electrical activity in the brain, is called:

1. N1 (R&K Stage 1).

2. N2 (R&K Stage 2). (p. 144)
3. N3 (R&K Stages 3 and 4).
4. R (R&K REM).
5. REM sleep.

56
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 LO 4.2

During which stage of sleep, often associated with

dreaming, does the body enter a state of paralysis to
prevent a person from acting out on their dreams?

1. N1 (R&K Stage 1)
2. N2 (R&K Stage 2)
3. N3 (R&K Stages 3 and 4)
4. R (R&K REM)
5. REM sleep

57
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 LO 4.2

During which stage of sleep, often associated with

dreaming, does the body enter a state of paralysis to
prevent a person from acting out on their dreams?

1. N1 (R&K Stage 1)
2. N2 (R&K Stage 2)
3. N3 (R&K Stages 3 and 4)
4. R (R&K REM)
5. REM sleep (p. 145)

58
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 LO 4.4

Night terrors differ from nightmares in that night terrors:

1. Occur during NREM sleep.

2. Are more common in children.
3. Are more likely to be remembered.
4. Involve extensive sleepwalking.

59
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 LO 4.4

Night terrors differ from nightmares in that night terrors

1. Occur during NREM sleep. (pp. 146-147)

2. Are more common in children.
3. Are more likely to be remembered.
4. Involve extensive sleepwalking.

60
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 LO 4.4

___________ is a sleep disorder in which a person slips

directly into REM sleep during the day and finds it difficult
to stay awake while performing activities, such as driving a
car.

1. Insomnia
2. Sleep apnea
3. REM behavior disorder
4. Narcolepsy
5. Night terrors

61
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 LO 4.4

___________ is a sleep disorder in which a person slips

directly into REM sleep during the day and finds it difficult
to stay awake while performing activities, such as driving a
car.

1. Insomnia
2. Sleep apnea
3. REM behavior disorder
4. Narcolepsy (p. 149)
5. Night terrors

62
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 LO 4.5

According to the ________________, a dream is the

brain’s attempt to make sense of, or provide an
explanation for, random signals emitted from the brainstem
during sleep.

1.activation synthesis hypothesis

2.psychoanalytic theory
3.the activation-information-mode model (AIM)
4.adaptive theory
5.restorative theory

63
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 LO 4.5

According to the ________________, a dream is the

brain’s attempt to make sense of, or provide an
explanation for, random signals emitted from the brainstem
during sleep.

1.activation synthesis hypothesis (p. 152)

2.psychoanalytic theory
3.the activation-information-mode model (AIM)
4.adaptive theory
5.restorative theory

64
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 LO 4.6

Which of the following is TRUE of hypnosis?

1. It provides people with supernatural strength that they

would not have if not hypnotized.
2. It helps to recover reliable memories of past
experiences, and therefore is used among police
departments, such as in cases of child abuse reported
years later by adults.
3. It can reduce the pain associated with surgery and
giving birth.
4. It helps people regress back to the childhood years.
5. It makes people commit immoral acts that they would
not normally.
65
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 LO 4.6

Which of the following is TRUE of hypnosis?

1. It provides people with supernatural strength that they

would not have if not hypnotized.
2. It helps to recover reliable memories of past
experiences, and therefore is used among police
departments, such as in cases of child abuse reported
years later by adults.
3. It can reduce the pain associated with surgery and
giving birth. (p. 156)
4. It helps people regress back to the childhood years.
5. It makes people commit immoral acts that they would
not normally.
66
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 LO 4.7

Psychological dependency on a drug occurs when:

1. a person becomes physically dependent on a drug,

and their body craves the drug.
2. a person develops tolerance and needs increased
dosages of the drug to achieve the initial effects that
the drug once had.
3. a person exhibits withdrawal symptoms when trying to
stop drug use.
4. the drug is needed to continue a feeling of emotional
well-being.
5. a person has difficulty functioning normally without the
drug.
67
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 LO 4.7

Psychological dependency on a drug occurs when:

1. a person becomes physically dependent on a drug,

and their body craves the drug.
2. a person develops tolerance and needs increased
dosages of the drug to achieve the initial effects that
the drug once had.
3. a person exhibits withdrawal symptoms when trying to
stop drug use.
4. the drug is needed to continue a feeling of
emotional well-being. (p. 159)
5. a person has difficulty functioning normally without the
drug.
68
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 LO 4.8

Which of the following drugs is most likely to cause

psychosis, where a person starts becoming delusional (i.e.,
having false beliefs), and becomes paranoid?

1. Amphetamines
2. Nicotine
3. Barbiturates
4. Alcohol
5. Caffeine

69
Psychology, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White All rights reserved.
 LO 4.8

Which of the following drugs is most likely to cause

psychosis, where a person starts becoming delusional (i.e.,
having false beliefs), and becomes paranoid?

1. Amphetamines (p. 160)

2. Nicotine
3. Barbiturates
4. Alcohol
5. Caffeine

70
Psychology, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White All rights reserved.
 LO 4.8

Which of the following is NOT considered an effect of

alcohol at a blood alcohol level of .10 or less?

1. Feelings of well being are increased.

2. Judgment is impaired.
3. Inhibitions are lowered.
4. Severe motor disturbances are present.
5. Increased chance of collision when driving a car.

71
Psychology, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White All rights reserved.
 LO 4.8

Which of the following is NOT considered an effect of

alcohol at a blood alcohol level of .10 or less?

1. Feelings of well being are increased.

2. Judgment is impaired.
3. Inhibitions are lowered.
4. Severe motor disturbances are present. (p. 164)
5. Increased chance of collision when driving a car.

72
Psychology, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White All rights reserved.
 LO 4.9

Narcotics, or pain killers, work by attaching to receptor sites

that are for the body’s natural painkiller substance,
_________, partially explaining why narcotics are so
addictive:

1. endorphins
2. serotonin
3. acetylcholine
4. THC
5. PCP

73
Psychology, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White All rights reserved.
 LO 4.9

Narcotics, or pain killers, work by attaching to receptor sites

that are for the body’s natural painkiller substance,
_________, partially explaining why narcotics are so
addictive:

1. endorphins (p. 164)

2. serotonin
3. acetylcholine
4. THC
5. PCP

74
Psychology, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White All rights reserved.
 LO 4.9

This drug is associated with its mind-altering ability to

enhance the senses, making colors seem brighter and
sounds more enhanced than they actually are in reality.

1. LSD
2. Morphine
3. Heroin
4. Cocaine
5. Benzodiazpines

75
Psychology, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White All rights reserved.
 LO 4.9

This drug is associated with its mind-altering ability to

enhance the senses, making colors seem brighter and
sounds more enhanced than they actually are in reality.

1. LSD (p.166)
2. Morphine
3. Heroin
4. Cocaine
5. Benzodiazpines

76
Psychology, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White All rights reserved.
 LO 4.9

All of the following are short or long-term effects of using

marijuana EXCEPT:

1. Immune system damage.

2. Anxiety or panic attacks.
3. Paranoia.
4. Increase chance of developing asthma.
5. Clearer thinking that allows for enhanced cognitive
abilities.

77
Psychology, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White All rights reserved.
 LO 4.9

All of the following are short or long-term effects of using

marijuana EXCEPT:

1. Immune system damage

2. Anxiety or panic attacks
3. Paranoia
4. Increase chance of developing asthma
5. Clearer thinking that allows for enhanced cognitive
abilities (pp. 166-167)

78
Psychology, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White All rights reserved.