Properties and Comparisons of

Commonly Specified Coatings

Zinc/Zinc-Alloy, Copper/Alloys, and Some
Precious Metals

By: Frank Altmayer

Technical Education Director, AESF Foundation/NASF
Data collected from a variety of sources, including ASTM and
“The Properties of Electroplated Metals & Alloys by Lowenheim”
Properties of Electroplated Zinc
• Density: 7.14 g/cm3 • Not Solderable/brazeable
• Melting Point: 419.53°C/787.15°F • Weldable (fume problem)
• Brittle up to 100°C,
• Amphoteric
Malleable 100°C-200°C, Brittle at
• Metal ions are low in toxicity
>200°C
• Para-magnetic • Aquatic toxin (ion)
• Electrical resistance: 5.9 mΩ cm • Powder is autophoretic
• Incompatibles:
– Chlorates, Chlorine, Acids, Nitrates,
Sulfur, Calcium Chloride, Alkalis

Bare and zinc

electroplated fastener
 Properties of Electroplated Zinc
 Sacrificial corrosion protection of ferrous
substrates
- Economical but yields unsightly corrosion
products (photo)
 Easily chromated to extend service life and
achieve a desired appearance
 Can be chromated and dyed/painted to produce
a colored coating
 Lower level of salt spray performance vs. Zn-
alloys or Cd
 Can grow zinc whiskers that may be a few
microns in diameter and can grow at rates of
up to 1 mm per year
 Related to high compressive stress in the
deposit and environment
 Preventive measures include alloying and
reduction of stress
 Other metals that can grow whiskers include tin, Zinc Whiskers, by
silver, gold, cadmium Schtone, Wikipedia photo
Corrosion Resistance of Zinc
(From ASTM B633)
Atmosphere Corrosion Rate (μm/year)
Industrial 5.6
Urban nonindustrial 1.5
Suburban 1.3
Rural 0.8
Indoors <<0.5
Note: The corrosion rate is greatly increased by frequent dew and
fog, particularly if the evaporation rate is slow.

Service Condition Min. Thickness, µm

SC4 (plumbing fixtures, pole line hardware) 25*
SC3 (furniture, builder’s hardware, bicycle parts) 12**
SC2 (tools, zippers, pull shelves, machine parts). 8
SC1 (buttons, wire goods, fasteners) 5
 Corrosion of Zinc
Bare Zinc:
• White gelatinous corrosion products
• Zinc oxide plus zinc carbonate
• Highly porous
Corrosion of bare zinc over steel
• Corroded fasteners may seize
– Anti seizing compounds may be applied
• Red rust indicates protection afforded by
zinc has broken down

Zinc Plus Chromate

• Chromate acts as barrier against
corrosive
• White corrosion products indicate failure
of chromate to act as barrier (base metal
is still protected
• Red rust indicates protection afforded by Corrosion of zinc plus
zinc plus chromate has broken down chromate over steel
 Galvanic Series
Metal E° [volts], 25°C E in Seawater @ 25°C
Zn → Zn+2 + 2e- -0.761 -1.0
} 0.4V
Fe → Fe+2 + 2e- -0.440 -0.6
} 0.1V
Cd → Cd+2 + 2e- -0.402 -0.7
Co → Co+2 + 2e- -0.277
Ni → Ni+2 + 2e- -0.250 -0.15
Sn → Sn+2 + 2e- -0.136

In a chloride environment,
cadmium is less noble
In a sulfate (acid rain) than iron
environment, cadmium is
more noble than iron
Salt Spray Performance of Zinc Alloys
Hours to exposure for 12 microns over steel
Coating Hrs To WR Hrs To RR
Bare Cadmium NA >1000
Cadmium + Chromate 672 >1000
Zinc-Nickel + Chromate (acidic solution) 168 336
Zinc-Nickel + Chromate (alkaline solution) >1000 >1000
Zinc-Tin + Chromate 672 >1000
Zinc-Cobalt + Chromate (acidic solution) 168 336
Zinc-Cobalt + Chromate (alkaline solution) 336 672

Hours to red rust for 8 microns over steel

 Zn-Ni vs. Zn-Co and Zn-Fe

Parameter Acid Alkaline Acid Alkaline Acid Alkaline

Zn-Ni Zn-Ni Zn-Co Zn-Fe Zn-Fe No-CN Zn
Alloy % 10-12 5-12 0.4-1.0 0.2-0.5 15-50 None
HV100 300-400 200-250 100-170 170-200 80-150
CCE 95-100 45-80 95-100 50-70 70-80 50-80
Throwing Poor Good Poor Good Poor Good
Power
Formability Poor Fair Fair Good Good Good
Solution Yes No Yes No Yes No
Corrosive
to Steel
Appearance Excellent Good Excellent Good Fair Good
 Zinc-Nickel
Features:
 High salt spray resistance
– 4-6 Times the performance of zinc alone
 Good Kesternich SO2 performance
– Zinc-cobalt is better
 Favorable galvanic couple with aluminum
 High abrasion resistance (HV100 =130-450)
 Good formability & weldability
 Excellent corrosion resistance at elevated
temperatures(up to 180°C)
 Forms temperature stable chromates
Zinc-nickel plus
Limitations: yellow chromate
 Inferior to Zn-Co in SO2 (acid rain)
 Zinc-Cobalt
Features:
• Co may be unregulated
• Less expensive v. zinc nickel
• Low Co alloys are highly ductile
- HV100 =150-200
- Parts can be deformed after plating
• Deposit is easier to chromate

Limitations: Automotive parts, zinc-cobalt

plated, illustrating a variety
• Chromates are dehydrated at elevated of chromates
temperatures
• Less corrosion resistant vs. Zn-Ni, Zn-Fe
• Lower solderability vs Zn-Ni
• Higher coefficient of friction vs Cd
 Zinc-Iron
Features:
• Low cost (least expensive of the zinc
alloys)
• High ductility, suitable for toxing
• Low hardness (HV25 = 80-170)
Limitations:
• Corrosion resistance is heavily dependent
on the chromate
• Less corrosion resistance vs. Zn-Ni, Zn-Co
- Corrosion resistance is obtained from
interaction of chromate and iron (bare Zn-Fe
@ 0.2-0.5% Fe is no better than bare Zn)
• Prone to delayed blistering
 Tin-Zinc
Features:
 High Corrosion resistance (especially in
sulfur atmosphere)
 Chromate performance better that other
alloys of zinc
 Excellent solderability
 Low coefficient of friction
 Excellent lubricity
 Excellent ductility
 Soft (HV25 =13-28)
 Excellent couple with Al
 Near neutral plating solutions are
available (pH 5.5-7)

Limitations:
 Tin is expensive
Tin-zinc, as plated and
 Unpleasing appearance chromated
 Impact of Zinc Alloys on Hydrogen
Embrittlement Relief Bake
Coating Pass/Fail Hrs. to Failure
Bare Cadmium PASS (3) >200
Cadmium + Chromate PASS (1) 183, (5) >200
Acid Zinc-Nickel FAIL (3) 0.5, 0.4, 0.5
Acid Zinc-Nickel* PASS (3) >200
Alkaline Zinc-Nickel PASS (1) 141, (5) >200
Zinc-Tin FAIL (3) 0, 0, 0.2
Acid Zinc-Cobalt FAIL (3) 0.8, 5.7, 4.4
Alkaline Zinc-Cobalt FAIL (3) 4.5, 4.5, 8.3

Notes:
All alloy deposits were chromated
* Designates an alternate supplier’s process was used
 Electroplated Copper
• Melting Point: 1083°C
• Stable in water, tarnishes quickly in air
• Eventually forms a patina and stops corroding
• Ductile, malleable
- Elongation is %
- Easily buffed/machined
• Excellent conductor of heat and electricity
• Hardness is typically HV25 = 50-350
• Low internal stress
• Chemically attacked by nitric, hot sulfuric, sulfides
• Diffusion barrier over brass
• Heat Treat Stop-off
• Under-plate for nickel
• Most commonly plated from sulfuric acid, cyanide or
alkaline non-cyanide based solutions
 Electroplated Copper
Property General Range High Strength Deposit
UTS (kpsi) 64 – 90 66 – 93
Yield (kpsi) 41 – 57
Elongation (%) 0 – 40 3 – 18
Hardness (HV) 48 – 350 131 – 159
Resistivity (micro-ohms-cm) 1.7 - 4.6 1.75 – 2.1
Internal Stress (psi) -6,000 - +14,000 +5,000 – +7,000
Fatigue Limit (106 cycles, kpsi) 10 – 20 No data

Notes:
• Thinner deposits from copper sulfate solutions are usually stronger than thicker
• Thicker deposits from cyanide solutions are usually stronger than thinner
• Fatigue limit for copper deposited from a cyanide copper solution (using periodic
reverse rectification) was twice that for sulfuric acid
 Bronze (Copper-Tin)
Applications:
• Powertrain, hydraulic and bearing
components
• Hardware exposed to marine environments
(corrosion rate = 0.002ipy) Bronze plated
hydraulic pump
• Nitride stop-off, cavities
Photo by F. Altmayer
Most commonly plated alloy: 8-15% Sn
• High hardness (HV = 350-600)
• Low coefficient of friction (0.06 on steel vs.
0.14 for hard chrome)
Color ranges:
Wikipedia photo
• Red (8-10%Sn)
Bronze plating on a
• Golden yellow (12-15%Sn) German ship hull
(1914)
• White (>22%Sn)
 Bronze (Copper-Tin)

120 600

100 500

80 400
Resistivity
Micro-ohms-cm HV
60 300

40 200

20 100

20 40 60 80

Weight % Tin
 White Bronze
(55-60%Cu, 25-28%Sn, 14-18%Zn)
Features:
• 55-60%Cu, 25-28%Sn, 14-18%Zn
• Alternative to electroplated nickel
• Bright
• Solderable
• High Hardness (HV340-400)
• Non magnetic
• Effective diffusion barrier White bronze plated spring
between gold and copper loaded washers for electronic
terminals
Limitations:
• 35% the conductivity of copper
• Cyanide based process
 Properties of Plated Silver
Features:
• Best conductor of heat and electricity of all metals
- Electrical resistance = 1.6-1.9 µ-ohms-cm, unless brightened with
antimony (10 times more resistive)
• Ductile, Malleable
- UTS: 34-48ksi
- Elongation: 12-19%
• HV25 = 40-200)
• Melting point 960.5°C
Automotive fuse with silver
• Boiling point 1950 ° C plated contacts
• Density 10.5 g/cc Photo by F. Altmayer

• Excellent reflection of visible light

• Internal stress: 1500-3500psi (tensile)
• Anti-galling
• Anti-bacterial

Limitations:
Silver sulfide whiskers growing
• Silver readily reacts with sulfur out of surface-mount resistors
producing silver sulfide (Ag2S) Photo by J. Reinhart
 Comparing Plated Precious Metals
Property Ag Au Rh Pd Pt
Color White Yellow White White Grey
Density, g/cm3 10.5 17-19.3 16-18 11.5-12 21
Melting Point, °C 960 1060 1966 1552 1769
Hardness, HK25 40-200 50-250 1000 250-500 280-350
Ductility (% elongation) 12-19 0.1-8 1.0 2-8 2-4
Catalytic Activity No No Yes Yes Yes
Crystal Structure FCC Nano FCC FCC FCC
Visible Light Reflection Excel. Poor Excel. Good Fair
Internal Stress Kpsi 0-40 -8-40 70-140 10-100 36
Corrosion Resistance Poor Excel. Excel. Good Excel.
Wear Cycles* <50 5-200 10,000 50 50
Contact Res. Ohms <.6 0.3-0.6 0.8 .004-1.1* .6
Arc Resistance Poor Poor Excel. Poor Poor
Solderability Excel Excel. Good V Good V Good
Thermal Exp. Coeff. 19.7 14.3 8.5 11.8 9.0
Thermal Conductivity** 1.0 0.71 0.21 0.17 0.17

*Cross wire, 200 g load

**Cal/cm/sec/°C
Properties of Electroplated Gold
Features:
• Typically alloyed with nickel, cobalt and other
heavy metals
- Additive-free hard gold is available
• Hardness, HK25 =40-90 Pure, 140-250 Alloy Gold Plated Contacts
• Extremely malleable
- 0.5mm diameter pellet can be hammered to >0.5
square meter
• Highly corrosion resistant to most environments
• Low internal stress: -8,000ksi to +40,000ksi Gold Whiskers

Liabilities:
• Can grow “whiskers”
• Chemically attacked by: Cyanide, Aqua Regia Gold Plate
Nickel Plate

Cross Section of Gold over

Nickel, 1000X
 Properties of Electroplated Gold
Stress: -8500 to +40,000
Contact Electrical Resistance: 0.22-1.74 Milliohm/in2
Electrical Resistivity: 2.4 micro-ohms-cm

Wear Properties
• Transitional metal Alloys Best
• Organic Brighteners Good
• Semi-metallic Brighteners Poor

Porosity
• Semi-metallic Brighteners Best
• Organic Brighteners Good Micro-circuit manufactured
using gold plating
• Transitional metal Alloys Poor
Notes:
• Porosity of a gold deposit is also related to thickness, temperature, solution
purity, and current density
• Gold plating offers excellent corrosion resistance, excellent solderability,
weldability and infra-red reflectivity
 Electronic Connections
Issues:
• Corrosive environments
- Atmospheric
- Body corrosives (wearables)
High Spot
• Abrasive Wear
- Connection cycles may be very frequent
• Thermal effects
- Heat dissipation requirements
- Formation of inter-metallics
- Diffusion
Resistance due to
• Contact Between Mating Surfaces current constriction

- Occurs only at the high spots, creating

constriction resistance
- Surface roughness has an impact on contact
resistance
Illustration by F. Altmayer
 Electronic Connections
More Issues:
• Connectors are smaller, more dense and often carry
a higher current density Selectively plated connector

• Soldering nearer to the mating surfaces can heat

the connectors to ~240°C

• Connectors may need to operate at higher

temperatures (up to 300°C) vs. older designs USB connector

• Co hardened gold is not suitable at > 125°C

• Ni hardened gold is limited to about 200°C

- Soft gold over hard gold may allow service at higher
temperatures
Apple type connector

Illustration courtesy of Molex Inc.

Photo by F. Altmayer
 Electronic Connections
Contact Electrical Resistance (CER):
• Films and abrasive residues from sliding friction increase CER
• Total CER is a combination of resistance due to constriction
plus film resistance plus the force between mating surfaces
• Mating force may be <10 grams
High Spot
1.0
0.0016” Ni under-plate

CER 0.5
(mΩ) 0.4
0.0008” Ni under-plate
0.3
0.0002” Ni under-plate

20 50 100 200
Resistance due to
Gram Load current constriction

Deposit % Au Resistivity (µΩ-cm) CER (mΩ)

Pure Gold 100 2.4 0.3
CoHG 99.5 15 0.6
NiHG 99.3 11 0.3
Data from “Gold Plating Technology” by Reid and Goldie
 Electronic Connectors
Soldering Issues:
• Gold dissolves into the solder, bond is created by the
formation of an intermetallic with the under-plated
metal/alloy
• Solder containing > 4% Au can be brittle and may form
a weak joint due to formation of intermetallics with
(preferentially) Sn and Pb

Surface Roughness:
• Smoother surfaces yield low levels of porosity and
lower CER values:
Roughness (RMS) Pores/cm (CoHG)
1.6 60
5.5 100
31.5 160
Data from “Gold Plating Technology” by Reid and Goldie
 Gold Plating on Connectors
Features:
• Reliability
- Especially at current as low as 1 nano-amp
• Corrosion resistance
• Wear properties
• Suitable for low force connections
• Low/consistent contact electrical resistance
• Not subject to degradation by fretting
• Usable at elevated temperatures

Liabilities:
• Cannot be mated to tin plated surfaces
• Requires nickel (or other suitable) under-plate Photo by F. Altmayer

• Low arc resistance

• Whiskers can produce short circuits
• High cost of gold
 Properties of Palladium
Features:
 Melting Point 1555°C, Boiling Point 2200°C
 Density: 11.7-12.02 g/cm3
 Internal Stress: +10,000 to +100,000 psi
 Good Tarnish Resistance
 Hardness: 250-500 HK25
 Contact Resistance, 0.004-1.1 ohms
 Resistivity, 10.7 ohm-cm
 Solderability: excellent
 Thermal Expansion coefficient: 11.8
 Thermal conductivity: 0.17 cal/cm/°C

Liabilities:
 Attacked by HCl and HNO3
 Arc resistance: low
 Low ductility (Elongation: 2-4%) Palladium plated jewelry

 Relatively Poor Wear Properties

 Polymer Adsorption on Surface
 Palladium-Nickel Alloys
 40 to 99+% palladium
 Bright
 Hard electrodeposits (450 to 600 KHN100)
 Much lower tendency toward micro-cracking
and polymer adsorption
 Good chemical stability
 Good wear resistance
 Deposit crystal orientation is (100) or (110)
 More economical than pure palladium
 Outperformed by pure palladium deposits in
applications serving at high temperatures
The End, Thank You!