Composite Materials

R. Lindeke
ENGR 2110
 Introduction
• A Composite material is a material system composed of
two or more macro constituents that differ in shape and
chemical composition and which are insoluble in each
other. The history of composite materials dates back to
early 20th century. In 1940, fiber glass was first used to
reinforce epoxy.
• Applications:
– Aerospace industry
– Sporting Goods Industry
– Automotive Industry
– Home Appliance Industry
Advanced Aerospace Application:
Lear Fan 2100 “all-composite” aircraft
Advanced Aerospace Application:
Boeing 767 (and in 777, 787 airplanes w/ the latest, full wing box is composite):
 Terminology/Classification
• Composites: woven
-- Multiphase material w/significant fibers
proportions of each phase.
• Matrix:
-- The continuous phase
-- Purpose is to: 0.5 mm
- transfer stress to other phases cross
- protect phases from environment section
-- Classification: MMC, CMC, PMC view
metal ceramic polymer
• Dispersed phase: 0.5 mm
-- Purpose: enhance matrix properties. Reprinted with permission from
MMC: increase sy, TS, creep resist. D. Hull and T.W. Clyne, An
Introduction to Composite Materials,
CMC: increase Kc 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press,
New York, 1996, Fig. 3.6, p. 47.
PMC: increase E, sy, TS, creep resist.
-- Classification: Particle, fiber, structural
Composite Structural Organization: the
design variations
 Composite Survey
Composites

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

Large- Dispersion- Continuous Discontinuous Laminates Sandwich

particle strengthened (aligned) (short) panels

Aligned Randomly
oriented Adapted from Fig.
16.2, Callister 7e.
 Composite Benefits
• CMCs: Increased toughness • PMCs: Increased E/r
Force ceramics
particle-reinf 103
E(GPa)
102 PMCs
10 metal/
fiber-reinf 1 metal alloys
un-reinf
.1 G=3E/8 polymers
.01 K=E
Bend displacement .1 .3 1 3 10 30
10 -4 Density, r [mg/m3]
ess (s-1) 6061 Al
• MMCs: 10 -6 Adapted from T.G. Nieh, "Creep rupture of a
Increased silicon-carbide reinforced aluminum
composite", Metall. Trans. A Vol. 15(1), pp.
creep 10 -8 6061 Al 139-146, 1984. Used with permission.

resistance w/SiC
whiskers
s(MPa)
10 -10
20 30 50 100 200
 Composite Survey: Particle-I
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
• Examples:
- Spheroidite matrix: particles: Adapted from Fig.
10.19, Callister 7e.
steel ferrite (a) cementite (Fig. 10.19 is
(ductile) (Fe3 C) copyright United
States Steel
(brittle) Corporation, 1971.)
60 mm
Adapted from Fig.
- WC/Co matrix: particles: 16.4, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 16.4 is courtesy
cemented cobalt WC Carboloy Systems,
carbide (ductile) (brittle, Department, General
Electric Company.)
Vm : hard)
5-12 vol%! 600 mm
Adapted from Fig.
16.5, Callister 7e.
- Automobile matrix: particles: (Fig. 16.5 is courtesy
tires rubber C
Goodyear Tire and
Rubber Company.)
(compliant) (stiffer)
0.75 mm
 Composite Survey: Particle-II
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

Concrete – gravel + sand + cement

- Why sand and gravel? Sand packs into gravel voids

Reinforced concrete - Reinforce with steel rebar or remesh

- increases strength - even if cement matrix is cracked

Prestressed concrete - remesh under tension during setting of

concrete. Tension release puts concrete under compressive force
- Concrete much stronger under compression.
- Applied tension must exceed compressive force
Post tensioning – tighten nuts to put under rod under tension
but concrete under compression
threaded
nut rod
 Composite Survey: Particle-III
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
• Elastic modulus, Ec, of composites:
-- two approaches.
upper limit: “rule of mixtures”
Ec = VmEm + VpEp
E(GPa)
Data: 350 Adapted from Fig. 16.3,
Cu matrix 30 0 lower limit: Callister 7e. (Fig. 16.3 is
from R.H. Krock, ASTM
w/tungsten 250 1 Vm Vp
= + Proc, Vol. 63, 1963.)
particles 20 0 E c Em Ep
150

0 20 40 60 80 10 0 vol% tungsten
(Cu) (W)
• Application to other properties:
-- Electrical conductivity, se: Replace E in the above equations
with se.
-- Thermal conductivity, k: Replace E in above equations with k.
 Composite Survey: Fiber
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

• Fibers themselves are very strong

– Provide significant strength improvement to
material
– Ex: fiber-glass
• Continuous glass filaments in a polymer matrix
• Strength due to fibers
• Polymer simply holds them in place and
environmentally protects them
Fiber Loading Effect under Stress:
 Composite Survey: Fiber
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
• Critical fiber length (lC) for effective stiffening & strengthening:
fiber strength in tension fiber diameter
sf d
fiber length  15 shear strength of
c fiber-matrix interface
• Ex: For fiberglass, a fiber length > 15 mm is needed since this length
provides a “Continuous fiber” based on usual glass fiber properties
• Why? Longer fibers carry stress more efficiently!
Shorter, thicker fiber: Longer, thinner fiber: s d
sf d fiber length  15 f
fiber length  15
c c
s(x) s(x)
Adapted from Fig.
16.7, Callister 7e.

Poorer fiber efficiency Better fiber efficiency

 Fiber Load Behavior under Stress:

s*f d
lc 
2 c
 Composite Survey: Fiber
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
• Fiber Materials
– Whiskers - Thin single crystals - large length to diameter ratio
• graphite, SiN, SiC
• high crystal perfection – extremely strong, strongest known
• very expensive
– Fibers
• polycrystalline or amorphous
• generally polymers or ceramics
• Ex: Al2O3 , Aramid, E-glass, Boron, UHMWPE

– Wires
• Metal – steel, Mo, W
 Fiber Alignment
Adapted from Fig.
16.8, Callister 7e.

aligned aligned random

continuous discontinuous
Behavior under load for Fibers &
Matrix
Composite Strength: Longitudinal Loading

Continuous fibers - Estimate fiber-reinforced

composite strength for long continuous fibers in a
matrix
• Longitudinal deformation
sc = smVm + sfVf but ec = em = ef
volume fraction isostrain

 Ece = Em Vm + EfVf longitudinal (extensional)

modulus Remembering: E = s/e
Ff E f Vf and note, this model
 f = fiber corresponds to the
“upper bound” for
Fm E mVm m = matrix particulate composites
Composite Strength: Transverse Loading

• In transverse loading the fibers carry less of

the load and are in a state of ‘isostress’

sc = sm = sf = s ec= emVm + efVf

1 Vm Vf
   transverse modulus
E ct E m E f

Remembering: E = s/e
and note, this model
corresponds to the “lower
bound” for particulate
composites
An Example:

UTS, SI Modulus, SI
57.9 MPa 3.8 GPa
2.4 GPa 399.9 GPa

(241.5 GPa)

(9.34 GPa)

Note: (for ease of conversion)

6870 N/m2 per psi!
 Composite Strength
Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural
• Estimate of Ec and TS for discontinuous fibers:
sf d
-- valid when fiber length  15
c
-- Elastic modulus in fiber direction:
Ec = EmVm + KEfVf
efficiency factor:
-- aligned 1D: K = 1 (aligned ) Values from Table 16.3, Callister 7e.
(Source for Table 16.3 is H. Krenchel,
-- aligned 1D: K = 0 (aligned ) Fibre Reinforcement, Copenhagen:
-- random 2D: K = 3/8 (2D isotropy) Akademisk Forlag, 1964.)

-- random 3D: K = 1/5 (3D isotropy)

-- TS in fiber direction:
(TS)c = (TS)mVm + (TS)fVf (aligned 1D)
 Composite Survey: Fiber

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

• Aligned Continuous fibers
• Examples:
-- Metal: g'(Ni3Al)-a(Mo) -- Ceramic: Glass w/SiC fibers
by eutectic solidification. formed by glass slurry
matrix: a (Mo) (ductile) Eglass = 76 GPa; ESiC = 400 GPa.

(a) fracture
surface

From F.L. Matthews and R.L.

2 mm Rawlings, Composite Materials;
Engineering and Science, Reprint
fibers: g ’ (Ni3Al) (brittle) (b)
ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL,
2000. (a) Fig. 4.22, p. 145 (photo by
J. Davies); (b) Fig. 11.20, p. 349
From W. Funk and E. Blank, “Creep
(micrograph by H.S. Kim, P.S.
deformation of Ni3Al-Mo in-situ
Rodgers, and R.D. Rawlings). Used
composites", Metall. Trans. A Vol. 19(4), pp.
with permission of CRC
987-998, 1988. Used with permission.
Press, Boca Raton, FL.
 Composite Survey: Fiber

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

• Discontinuous, random 2D fibers
• Example: Carbon-Carbon
C fibers:
-- process: fiber/pitch, then
very stiff
burn out at up to 2500ºC. very strong
-- uses: disk brakes, gas (b)
C matrix:
turbine exhaust flaps, nose
less stiff
cones. view onto plane less strong
• Other variations: fibers lie
-- Discontinuous, random 3D (a) in plane
-- Discontinuous, 1D

Ec = EmVm + KEfVf
efficiency factor:
-- random 2D: K = 3/8 (2D isotropy)
-- random 3D: K = 1/5 (3D isotropy)
Looking at strength:
l  lC

m 1  V f 
s  
 s V f 1 
 lC 
 s

'

 2l 
cd f

where s f is fiber fracture strength



& s m is matrix stress when composite fails

'

l  lC
l C
s 
cd '  V f  s m' 1  V f 
d
where: d is fiber diameter &
 C is smaller of Matrix Fiber shear strength
or matrix shear yield strength
 Composite Survey: Structural

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

• Stacked and bonded fiber-reinforced sheets
-- stacking sequence: e.g., 0º/90º or 0/45/90º
-- benefit: balanced, in-plane stiffness

• Sandwich panels
-- low density, honeycomb core Adapted from Fig.
-- benefit: light weight, large bending stiffness 16.16, Callister 7e.

face sheet
adhesive layer
honeycomb

Adapted from Fig. 16.18,

Callister 7e. (Fig. 16.18 is
from Engineered Materials
Handbook, Vol. 1, Composites, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1987.)
Composite Manufacturing
Processes
• Particulate Methods: Sintering
• Fiber reinforced: Several
• Structural: Usually Hand lay-up and
atmospheric curing or vacuum
curing
Irwin/McGraw-Hill © 2000 Th e McGraw- Hill Comp anies, Inc.,
Open Mold Processes
Only one mold (male or female) is needed and may be made of any
material such as wood, reinforced plastic or , for longer runs, sheet metal
or electroformed nickel. The final part is usually very smooth.

Shaping. Steps that may be taken for high quality

1. Mold release agent (silicone, polyvinyl alcohol, fluorocarbon, or
sometimes, plastic film) is first applied.
2. Unreinforced surface layer (gel coat) may be deposited for best surface
quality.
Hand Lay-Up: The resin and fiber (or pieces cut from
prepreg) are placed manually, air is expelled with
squeegees and if necessary, multiple layers are
built up.
· Hardening is at room temperature but may be improved by heating.
· Void volume is typically 1%.
· Foam cores may be incorporated (and left in the part) for greater
shape complexity. Thus essentially all shapes can be produced.
· Process is slow (deposition rate around 1 kg/h) and labor-intensive
· Quality is highly dependent on operator skill.
· Extensively used for products such as airframe components, boats,
truck bodies, tanks, swimming pools, and ducts.
 SPRAY-UP MOLDING
A spray gun supplying resin in two converging streams into which roving
is chopped
· Automation with robots results in highly reproducible production
· Labor costs are lower
 Tape-Laying Machines
(Automated Lay-Up)

Cut and lay the ply or prepreg under computer control and without tension;
may allow reentrant shapes to be made.
· Cost is about half of hand lay-up
· Extensively used for products such as airframe components, boats, truck
bodies, tanks, swimming pools, and ducts.
• Filament Winding
– Ex: pressure tanks
– Continuous filaments wound onto mandrel

Adapted from Fig. 16.15, Callister 7e. [Fig.

16.15 is from N. L. Hancox, (Editor), Fibre
Composite Hybrid Materials, The Macmillan
Company, New York, 1981.]
Filament Winding Characteristics
۰Because of the tension, reentrant shapes cannot be produced.
۰CNC winding machines with several degrees of freedom (sometimes 7)
are frequently employed.
۰The filament (or tape, tow, or band) is either precoated with the polymer
or is drawn through a polymer bath so that it picks up polymer on
its way to the winder.
۰Void volume can be higher (3%)
۰The cost is about half that of tape laying
۰Productivity is high (50 kg/h).
۰Applications include: fabrication of composite pipes, tanks, and pressure
vessels. Carbon fiber reinforced rocket motor cases used for
Space Shuttle and other rockets are made this way.
Pultrusion
۰ Fibers are impregnate with a prepolymer, exactly positioned with guides,
preheated, and pulled through a heated, tapering die where curing
takes place.

۰Emerging product is cooled and pulled by oscillating clamps

۰Small diameter products are wound up
۰Two dimensional shapes including solid rods, profiles, or hollow tubes,
similar to those produced by extrusion, are made, hence its name
‘pultrusion’
 Composite Production Methods
Pultrusion
– Continuous fibers pulled through resin tank, then preforming die
& oven to cure

Adapted from Fig.

16.13, Callister 7e.

۰Production rates around 1 m/min.

۰Applications are to sporting goods (golf club shafts), vehicle drive shafts
(because of the high damping capacity), nonconductive ladder rails for
electrical service, and structural members for vehicle and aerospace
applications.
PREPREG PRODUCTION PROCESSES
۰Prepreg is the composite industry’s term for continuous fiber reinforcement
pre-impregnated with a polymer resin that is only partially cured.
۰Prepreg is delivered in tape form to the manufacturer who then molds and fully
cures the product without having to add any resin.
۰This is the composite form most widely used for structural applications
 PrePreg Process

۰ Manufacturing begins by collimating a series of spool-wound

continuous fiber tows.
۰ Tows are then sandwiched and pressed between sheets of
release and carrier paper using heated rollers
(calendering).
۰ The release paper sheet has been coated with a thin film of
heated resin solution to provide for its thorough
impregnation of the fibers.
 PrePreg Process

۰ The final prepreg product is a thin tape consisting of

continuous and aligned fibers embedded in a
partially cured resin
۰ Prepared for packaging by winding onto a cardboard
core.
۰ Typical tape thicknesses range between 0.08 and 0.25
mm
۰ Tape widths range between 25 and 1525 mm.
۰ Resin content lies between about 35 and 45 vol%
 PrePreg Process

۰The prepreg is stored at 0C (32 F) or lower because thermoset matrix
undergoes curing reactions at room temperature. Also the time in
use at room temperature must be minimized. Life time is about 6
months if properly handled.
۰Both thermoplastic and thermosetting resins are utilized: carbon, glass,
and aramid fibers are the common reinforcements.
۰Actual fabrication begins with the lay-up. Normally a number of plies are
laid up to provide the desired thickness.
۰The lay-up can be by hand or automated.
 Summary
• Composites are classified according to:
-- the matrix material (CMC, MMC, PMC)
-- the reinforcement geometry (particles, fibers, layers).
• Composites enhance matrix properties:
-- MMC: enhance sy, TS, creep performance
-- CMC: enhance Kc
-- PMC: enhance E, sy, TS, creep performance
• Particulate-reinforced:
-- Elastic modulus can be estimated.
-- Properties are isotropic.
• Fiber-reinforced:
-- Elastic modulus and TS can be estimated along fiber dir.
-- Properties can be isotropic or anisotropic.
• Structural:
-- Based on build-up of sandwiches in layered form.