FIBER OPTIC
TECHNOLOGY
DIVINO FIEL A. DE BIEN, ECE
OBJECTIVES
• Understand the basic operation of the
fiber as a communication link.
• Recognize the advantages of the optical
fiber compared to copper wire.
• Calculate the refractive index of a
transparent material
• Analyze and compute fiber power losses.
• Define and understand the terms graded
index, step index, and modal dispersion
History of Fiber Optics
• In 1870 John Tyndall, a
natural philosopher living
in England, demonstrated
one of the first guided light
system to the Royal
Society
• In 1960 Theodore Maiman
of Hughes Research
Laboratory operated the
first laser.
Why Optical Fibers?
• The light weight and
noncorrosiveness of the fiber make
it very practical for aircraft and
automotive applications.
• A single fiber can handle as many
voice channels as a 1500 pair
cable can.
• The spacing of repeaters from 35
to 80 km for fibers, as opposed to
from 1 to 1 ½ km for wire, is a great
advantage
• Fiber is immune to interference
from lightning, cross talk, and
electromagnetic radiation.
Nature of Light
• Light
– A form of energy visible to the eye that is
radiated by moving charged particles
– Radiated or emitted by electron circling the
nucleus of an atom
Energy
Energy
Absorption of Light Emission of Light
Energy Level
• Energy Level
– specific amount of energy in each orbital that electrons need to
circle the nucleus
– electrons closer to the nucleus have the lowest energy level, so
its motion does not radiate energy
if a packet of energy excite the
electron, it must transfer to a
higher energy level
if an electron loses energy, it
must transfer to a lower
energy level
the difference between the
higher and lower energy levels
is equal to the energy released
by the electron, which may be
in the form of a photon of light
Energy in Photon
• Photons
– a packet of light energy
E = hf (Joules per photon)
• where:
E = Energy in one quantum in Joules or electron volt
h = 6.63 x 10-34 (Planck’s constant)
f = frequency (wavelength)
Electron Volt: energy gained or lost by one electron moving
through a potential difference of one volt (1 ev = 1.6 x 10-9
Joules)
INTRODUCTION TO LIGHT
• Light can be defined ns the part of the visible
spectrum that has a wavelength range between 0.4
μm (micrometer) and 0.7 µm
• Wavelengths of light are extremely short. Their
distances are measured in units called angstroms,
after the Swedish physicist Anders J. Angstrom.
• A single angstrom is 1 ten-billionth or a meter. In
the fiber industry, the terms used more frequently to
measure wavelengths of light are the micrometer and
the nanometer
Introduction to Light
The wavelength of the light in optical fiber is either
1550 nm, 1310 nm, or 850 nm.
Optical Spectrum
Made up of infrared, visible, and ultraviolet
light. The frequency of the optical spectrum is in
the range of 3 x 1011 to 3 x 1016 Hz. This
includes both the infrared and the ultraviolet
bands as well as the visible parts of the
spectrum. The visible spectrum is from 4.3 x
1014 to 7.5 x 1014 Hz.
Detection of Light
• Photoelectric Effect
– A process in which an atom absorbs a photon that has so much
energy that the photon sets one of the atom’s electrons free to
move to the next orbital
• Activation Energy
– A part of the photon’s energy that is needed in releasing the
electron; while the rest of the energy is transferred to the
released electron in the form of motion
• Since the photon energy is proportional to frequency,
the released electron (photoelectron) moves faster
when it has absorbed a high frequency light
• Metals with low activation energies are used to make
photoelectrons
FIBER OPTIC TECHNOLOGY
BEHAVIOR OF LIGHT
CATEGORIES
Propagation of Light
• Interference
– Occurs when light waves overlap
– Constructive Interference:
• if two waves are in phase, the peaks become
additive
– Destructive Interference
• if two waves are out of phase, the peak and
trough will cancel each other
• Diffraction
– Spreading of light waves as they pass
through a small opening or a boundary
Interaction of Light with
Materials
• In transparent materials, the electrons in the material vibrate when
light is present.
• The oscillation takes away energy from the light wave and then
puts it back again, the result is to slow down the light wave without
leaving the energy behind
• Denser materials generally slow the light more than less dense
materials. Therefore, 1
D
velocity of light
• Materials that are not completely transparent either absorb light or
reflect it. If it is absorbed, the energy lost to the vibrating electrons
does not go back to the light thus increasing the motion of the
atoms causing the material to heat up.
• If it is reflected, only the re-radiated light can be absorbed because
the re-radiated light cancels out the original wave.
Reflection
• Occurs when light hitting the boundary returns
into the material
Scattering
• Occurs when the atoms of a transparent material are
not smoothly distributed over distances greater than the
length of the light wave, but are bunched up into lumps
of molecules or particles
• Example:
– The atmosphere scatters violet the most but the human eyes
do not see this frequency well.
– The human eye responds well to blue, which is the next most
scattered color.
– Sunsets took red because the sun is at the horizon and light
has to travel through a longer distance of atmosphere to reach
the eye
Refraction
• This is caused by a change in the speed of
light as it passes through different mediums
such as air, water, glass, and other transparent
substances
• This phenomenon is commonly evident when
objects are viewed through a glass of water
Refraction
Dispersion is the process of separating light into
each of its component frequencies. It is
commonly recognizable when sunlight is
dispersed into a rainbow of colors by a prism
Diffraction is the bending of light as it passes
through an opening in an obstacle
Absorption takes place when light strikes
a surface (flat black) and is converted into heat
through an exchange of energy with the atoms
of the surface; in this case there is little or no
reflection.
Scattering occurs when light strikes a
substance which in turn emits light of its own
at the same wavelength as the incident light
If the substance emits light of a wavelength
longer than that of the incident light, this is
called luminescence.
Examples of luminescence are watch dials that
glow in the dark because of the absorption of
light during the day and the emission of light (as
the atoms return to their normal state) at night
The angle of incidence is the angle between the
incident ray and the normal.
The angle of refraction is the angle between the
refracted ray and the normal.
Light passing from a lower refractive index to a
higher one is bent toward the normal, and vice
versa. If the angle of incidence moves away from
the normal to a point 90° from it, it is called
the critical angle. At this point, light has gone from
the refractive mode to the reflective mode.
Bending of Light Ray
Independent of the index of the two media, a
small portion of light will always be reflected
where light passes from one index to another,
this is called Fresnel reflection
When light passes through fiber, another
situation, which is governed by Snell’s law,
arises. This law states the relationship between
the incident and refracted rays.
Example Problems
• Let Medium 1 be glass (n=1.5) and medium 2
be ethyl alcohol (n=1.36). For an angle of
incidence of 30, determine the angle of
refraction.
• Calculate the critical angle of incidence
between two substances with different
refractive indices where n1 = 1.5 and n2
=1.46
Fiber Optic Cable
THE OPTICAL FIBER AND
FIBER CABLES
The basic single-fiber cable consists of the
following:
1. Core-quartz
2. Cladding- silica
3. Jacket- acrylic
4. Buffer jacket
5. Strength member
6. Outer jacket
Fiber Construction
Cross Section
• Fiber core • Jacket / Coating
– 8 to 100 micrometer in – Layers of polymer
diameter – No optical properties that
• Fiber Cladding may affect the propagation
of light within the fiber
– Typical 125 micrometer
– “shock absorber”
in diameter
Material of Construction
• Plastic Clad Plastic (PCP)
– Low cost and easy to use
– Not for high bandwidth and low loss systems
• Plastic Clad Silica (PCS)
– Respectable performance
• Silica Clad Silica (SCS)
– Best performance but most expensive
Fiber Characteristics
and Classification
• The characteristics of light transmission
through a glass fiber depend on many factors,
for example:
• 1. The composition of the fiber
• 2. The amount and type of light introduced
into the fiber
• 3. The diameter and length of the fiber
• The composition of the fiber determines the
refractive index. By a process cal1ed doping,
other materials are introduced into the
material that alter its index number.
• This process produces single fiber with a
core index n1 and a surface index (cladding)
n2 (typically n1 = 1.48 and n2 = 1.46).
• Another characteristic of the fiber, which
depends on its size, is its mode of operation.
The term "mode‘’ as used here refers to
mathematical and physical descriptions of the
propagation of energy through a medium.
• The number of modes supported by a single
fiber can be as low as 1 or as high as 100,000;
that is, a fiber can provide a path for one light
ray or for hundreds of thousands of light rays.
• Refractive index profile
• "Light changes speed when it passes from one
medium to another." There are two major
indices in this relationship:
• 1. Step index
• 2. Graded. index
• The step index describes an abrupt index
change from the core to the cladding, for
example, a core with a uniform, index (1.48)
and a cladding with a uniform index (1.46).
With graded-index fiber, the highest index is
at the center (1.48). This number decreases
gradually until it reaches the index number of
the cladding (1.46), that is, near the surface.
Propagation Modes
Mode of Operation
Some specifications for a single-mode fiber are:
L The bandwidth is from 50 to 100 GHz/km.
2. The digital communication rate is in excess of 2000
Mbyte/s.
3. More than 100,000 voice channels are available.
4. Light wavelengths approach core diameter; therefore,
higher frequency capabilities are achieved.
5. The mode field diameter (MFD; spot size) is larger
than the core diameter.
Numerical aperture (NA) relates to the light gathering
capabilities of a fiber. Only light that strikes the (fiber
at an angle greater than the critical angle will be
propagated. The NA relates to the indices of both the
core and the cladding
Cone of acceptance describes the maximum light
propagation angle
In general, fibers with high bandwidths have
low NA and thus fewer modes and less modal
dispersion. NAs range from 0.50 for plastic to
0.21 for graded-index fibers.
Single Mode and Multi-Mode
Light Travel
• Single:
– Light to travel in a
straight line.
• Multi:
– Light to travel
multiple paths.
Refractive Index Profile
Light
n1 core
ray
n2 cladding
Single-mode step-index Fiber no air
n1 core
n2 cladding
Multimode step-index Fiber no air
Variable
n
Multimode graded-index Fiber Index profile
Modes of Propagation
Types of Fiber
Numerical Aperture
• Numerical Aperture (NA)
– Relates to the light-gathering capabilities of a fiber.
Only light that strikes the fiber at an angle greater
than the critical angle θc will be propagated.
NA sin C n n2
2 2
1
• Critical Angle, θc,
– is the maximum angle in which external light rays may
strike the air/fiber interface and still propagate down
the Fiber with <10 dB loss.
C sin 1
n n2
1
2 2
Cone of Acceptance
Acceptance n2 cladding
Cone C n1 core
n2 cladding
Cut off Wavelength for
Single Mode Operation
2an1 2a 2aNA
c 2 n1 n2
2 2
2.405 2.405 2.405
• Value of the wavelength that makes the
normalized frequency equal to 2.405
• Defines the smallest wavelength at which
a fiber can be operated for single mode
Fiber Diameter
0.383
rmax
NA
• where
– rmax = maximum radius of the core
– = wavelength
– NA = Numerical Aperture
Example Problem # 2
• An optical fiber and its cladding have
refractive indexes of 1.535 and 1.490,
respectively. Calculate NA and in.
Example Problem # 3
• For a multimode step-index fiber with a
glass core (n1 = 1.5) and a fused quartz
cladding (n2 = 1.46)., determine the
critical angle (c), acceptance angle (in),
and numerical aperture. The source-to-
fiber medium is air.
Example Problem # 4
• A single mode fiber has a numerical
aperture of 0.15. What is the maximum
core diameter it could have for use with
infrared light with a wavelength of 820
nm?
Example Problem # 5
• For a 3-m diameter optical fiber with
core and cladding indexes of refraction of
1.545 and 1.510, respectively; determine
the cuttoff wavelength.
Fiber Optic
Components and
Systems
Optical Fiber Link
Transmitter
Input Coder or Light Source-to-Fiber
Signal Converter Source Interface
Fiber-optic Cable
Fiber-to-light Light Amplifier/Shaper Output
Interface Detector Decoder
Receiver
Optical Fiber Link
• Light source: LED or ILD (Injection Laser
Diode):
– amount of light emitted is proportional to the drive
current
• Source–to–fiber coupler (similar to a lens):
– A mechanical interface to couple the light emitted by
the source into the optical fiber
• Light detector: PIN (p-type-intrinsic-n-type) or
APD (avalanche photo diode) both convert light
energy into current
Optical Fiber Cable
TRANSMITTERS
• LEDs
– Spectral width (range of wavelengths
a source can produce) : 20 to 60 nm
– Radiation of light energy is caused
by recombination of holes and
electrons that are injected into the
junction by a forward bias voltage
– Energy lost in the transition is
converted to an optic energy in the
form of a photon
TRANSMITTERS
• LASER
– Produce more power but more sensitive to
temperature changes
– Narrower spectral width: 2 to 5 nm
TRANSMITTERS
• LASER
– Active region is narrower horizontally and thinner vertically
– 30 to 50 degree perpendicular beam divergence (half angle)
– 5 to 10 degree parallel beam divergence (half angle)
RECEIVERS
• PN Photodiode
– Not suitable for FOCS because:
depletion region is relatively small
portion of the diode’s total volume
and rise time is in the order of
microseconds, too slow for high
speed data communications
– Rise time: time needed by the
output to go from 10% to 90% of
the maximum amplitude
RECEIVERS
• PIN Photodiode
– Depletion layer has been increased by the
intrinsic layer
– Intrinsic layer is lightly doped (but not enough
to be considered as a p – type or n – type
material)
RECEIVERS
• Avalanche Photodiode
– A semiconductor that has internal gain
– The free electrons and holes created by absorbed photons (primary
carriers) within this field, thereby gaining several eV of kinetic energy.
When fast charges collide with neutral atoms, some of the energy of
the accelerated carriers will be transferred to the bound electron,
causing it to move from valence to conduction band (secondary
carriers)
Characteristics of
Detectors
• Responsivity
– A measure of the sensitivity of the detector to light
– Measured as the ratio of the diode’s output current to the input optical
power
• Dark Current
– Thermally induced current that exists in the absence of input optical
power
• Response Time
– Time required for the photodiode to respond to optical inputs and
produce external current
• Transit Time
– Time required for the carriers to travel across the depletion region
• Spectral Response
– Range of wavelength values that can be used for a given photodiode
Response Time
0.35
BW
tr
1
BW
2RL Cd
where:
BW = Bandwidth RL = load resistance
tr = response time Cd = diode capacitance
Fiber Optic Cable
Connectors
Connectors
Fiber Losses
LOSSES in an
Optical Fiber
• Material Absorptions
– Due to the material impurities from metallic ions
– Light is converted to heat or some other form of energy
• Scattering Losses
– Occurs when a wave interacts with a particle in a way that
removes energy un the directional propagating wave and
transfers it to other directions
• Linear Scattering
– Characterized by having no change in the frequency of the
scattered wave
• Non – Linear Scattering
– Characterized by a frequency shift of the scattered light
– Results from the modulation of light by thermal energy in the
material
Linear Scattering
• Rayleigh Scattering
– Results from the interaction of light with inhomogeneities in the
medium that are much smaller than the wavelength of light (smaller
than one tenth of the coherent light)
– Scattering strength is proportional to -4
• Mie Scattering
– Results from the interaction of light with inhomogeneities in the
medium that are comparable in size to the wavelength of light (greater
than one tenth of the coherent light)
Non – Linear Scattering
• Brillouin Scattering
– Mainly in the backward direction reducing the
power at the receiver
– Produces a low – frequency phonon
(vibrational energy) as well as photons
(scattered light)
• Raman Scattering
• Produces a high frequency phonon and
scattered light in the forward direction
Dispersion
• Dispersion is the process of
separating the light into each of its
component frequencies.
• Types of Dispersion
–Modal Dispersion
–Chromatic Dispersion
–Polarization Mode Dispersion
–Waveguide Dispersion
Modal Dispersion
• Results from the different transit lengths of
different propagation modes in a multimode
optical fiber
Chromatic Dispersion
• Chromatic dispersion occurs because
different wavelengths propagate at
different speeds
Polarization Mode
Dispersion
• Polarization mode dispersion (PMD) is
caused by ovality of the fiber shape as a
result of the manufacturing process or
from external stressors.
Waveguide Dispersion
• Results when light enters both the core
and the cladding that entered the
cladding propagated down the fiber
Bending Losses
• Microbends
– Localized bends in the core – cladding
interface and developed during deployment
(cabling loss) or local mechanized stress
placed on the fiber (spooling loss)
– Typically 1 to 2 dB / km
• Macrobends
– Large bends on the fiber due to corners
– Minimum Bend Radius Rules:
• Stressed Cable: 10 times the diameter
• Unstressed Cable: 5 times the diameter
Coupling Losses
• Lateral Misalignment
– Axial displacement between the two fiber cables
• Angular Misalignment
– Unparallel fiber faces causing angular displacement
between fibers
• Gap misalignment
– End separation between two fibers
• NA mismatch
– Beamwidth of the source is greater than the acceptance
cone of the receiving fiber
• Unintercepted Illumination
– Optical power did not enter the fiber
Typical Values of Losses
Graded Index: 4 to 6 dB/km
Step Index: 6 to 10 dB/km
Single Mode: 0.4 to 0.5 dB/km
THANK YOU…
