Six Sigma

IE 4010
Chapter 18:
Design of Experiments (DOE)
Introduction to Designed
Experiments
 Often in industry, processes are
“optimized” by varying one variable
at a time.

 The problem with this?

− Results take a long time to obtain
− Results are incomplete and/or
confounded

 A better method: experimental

design
− All factors are varied together, and
included in the analysis and results
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Introduction to Designed
Experiments
 Experimental design can be used to be more
successful in developing new products or
processes, or improving existing products or
processes

 The objective of experimental design is to

purposefully change input variables of a
process, and observe and identify
corresponding changes in the output response

 Most experiments involve several variables

− Factorial experimental designs are used in
these situations

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 Application of DOE
 A cross functional team can identify potential sources
of variation in the process

 During DOE a list of exact settings will be designed

for each trial
− Typically there will be 8 or more runs
− Samples will be randomly taken from each run to
be measured

 After DOE samples will be measured, and

calculations performed to determine optimal settings

 A confirmation test will determine whether new

settings have improved process as predicted by
results

Note: DOE is best used for

optimizing a process (vs. as a
 Basic Terms of DOE
 Factor: the variable controlled by the experimenter; it’s influence on a response is studied
in experiment

 Levels: The settings of a factor, either quantitative or qualitative

 Treatment: A single level assigned to a single factor or experimental unit during the
experimental run (e.g., pressure=200 psi)

 Balanced Design: Each setting of each factor appears the same number of times with
each setting of every other factor

 Block: A part of the experimental material or environment that is common to itself, and
distinct from other portions

 Experimental Design: The formal experiment plan

 Experimental Error: Variation in the response when levels and factors are held constant

 Planned Grouping: A practice done to promote uniformity within blocks and minimize the
effects of unwanted variables

 Randomization: Organizes experiment runs in a “chance” manner

 Replication: Repeats observations; requires resetting each trial condition

 Repetition: Repeats observations at setup experimental conditions

 Dependent Variable: A variable that is affected/changed by another variable

 Independent Variable: A variable presumed to affect/change another variable

 Response Variable: Show observed results of an experimental treatment, as a result of

levels, interactions, and number of factors
General Guidelines for
Designing Experiments
 Recognize (identify) the problem or
opportunity

}
Note: First three
 Choose a response variable steps are related to
pre-experimental
 Choose factors and their levels planning

 Choose the experimental design

 Perform the experiment

 Analyze the data

 Draw conclusions and make recommendations

Note: Checklists on pp 282-283 of text provide

additional guidelines to help ensure successful results! 6
Classification of Experimental
Designs (pp. 317-318)
 Completely randomized experiments

 Factorials

 Blocked factorials

 Fractional factorials

 Randomized blocks

 Latin squares

 Response surface

 Mixture designs
Factorial Experiments
 When there are several factors that
can affect a response variable (y), a
factorial design can be used for an
experiment
− All possible combinations of the
levels of the factors are investigated
− If there are two factors A and B, with
a levels of A, and b levels of B, then
the experiment will contain ab
combinations
− Factorial designs can evaluate main
effects and interactions

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Types of Factorial Design
 2^k design (k factors, each at two
levels)
− k=2 factors
 Total number of experimental runs: 4
− k=>3 factors
 Total number of experimental runs: 8,
16, 32…

 Fractional factorial
− 2^(k-p) designs
− 2^(k-1) designs (half fractional)
 For k=2, 2 runs; for k=3, 4 runs…

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 Main Effects
 Main effects refer to the change
in response due to changing one
of the primary factors
− They are computed as the
difference between the average
response at the high level of a
factor, and the average response
at the low level

 In the figure on this page, the

main effect of factor A is
computed as:

A  y A  y A  (30+40)/2 – (10+20)/2 = 20

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 Main Effects- Another
Example
 Notice the subtle difference
in the value on this page:
the value for A+B+ was
changed from 40 to 0

 This will change the

computation for the main
effect of factor A as follows:

A  y A  y A  (30+0)/2 - (10+20)/2 = 0

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Interactions
 An interaction between two factors occurs when
the difference in response between the levels of
one factor depends on the setting of another
factor
− If interactions are present, the main effects may
have little meaning

 Computing the interaction effect of factor AB for

second example (Fig. 12.6), using experimental
design table:
Run A B AxB Measure
1 - - + 10
2 - + - 20
3 + - - 30
4 + + + 0

AxB  y AB  y AB  (10+0)/2 - (20+30)/2 = -20

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 Graphs of Results
With/Without Interactions

 Clearly, we can see an interaction in the case of the

second graph

 What do you think would have happened if factors

would’ve been tested one at a time?
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 Design Resolution
 The extent to which effects in a fractional factorial design are
aliased with other effects.
− In a fractional factorial design, one or more of the effects
are confounded, meaning they cannot be estimated
separately from one another

 Possibilities
− Resolution III
 No main effects are aliased with any other main effect, but
main effects are aliased with 2-factor interactions.
− Resolution IV
 No main effects are aliased with any other main effect or 2-
factor interactions, but some 2-factor interactions are aliased
with other 2-factor interactions and main effects are aliased
with 3-factor interactions.
− Resolution V
 No main effects or 2-factor interactions are aliased with any
other main effect or 2-factor interactions, but 2-factor
interactions are aliased with 3-factor interactions and main
effects are aliased with 4-factor interactions.

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Statistical Analysis of a Factorial
Experiment using ANOVA

 Analysis of Variance is used to

statistically evaluate the results of
an experiment
− For results to be meaningful, trials
should be run in random order
− Care should be taken to minimize
process “noise” external to the
experimental design

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Data Table for a Two-
Factor Factorial Design

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Recall: ANOVA Table for a
Two-Factor Factorial Design

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Calculations for a Two-Factor
Factorial Design

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DOE Results
 Results can be evaluated analytically
− Table of estimated effects and coefficients (t-
and p-values)
− ANOVA
− R^2 value

 An equation is constructed using the coefficients for

each factor which represents the relationship
between the response and the factors

 Results can also be shown graphically

− Pareto Chart
− Normal plot of standardized results

 Residuals can provide information as to data

normality, independence, and whether variances
are equal

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Steak DOE
 You would like to maximize the
approval rating of steak depending
on how it’s prepared and cooked.

 The response is the approval rating,

on a scale of 1-100. Your objective is
to maximize this score.

 The factors are:

− Cooking method (grill, fry)
− Meat (sirloin, ribeye)
− Marinade (red wine & rosemary, soy
sauce & garlic)
Full-factorial experiment
with replicates
 Data from text

Run A B Response (y) Avg

1 - - 28.3 28.6 28.2 28.37

2 - + 33.5 32.7 32.9 33.03

3 + - 24.6 24.6 24.8 24.67

4 + + 37.2 37.6 37 37.27

 Analyze these results using Minitab

− Averages only
− All individual values
Popcorn DOE
 You would like to optimize your
microwave popcorn, in terms of
minimizing the unpopped kernels in
the bag after it’s cooked.

 The three variables you are

interested in looking into are:
− Brand (cheap, costly)
− Time (4 min, 6 min)
− Power (75%, 100%)
DOE In-Class Adventure!
(Modified) Tabletop Hockey
 Objective:
learn how to shoot a puck – just like the real gam
e

 Response: Furthest distance traveled of a puck

 Variables (Factors) and Settings: We decide

− Stick length (short, long)
− Wind up (full, half)
− Shot type (wrist, slap)
− Puck mass (high, low)

 Materials: Stick (ruler); Puck: (two types)

 Potential Challenges?

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DOE: Adding Data Points
 Replication
− Repeat and replicate measurements are
both multiple response measurements
taken at the same combination of factor
settings
 repeat measurements are taken during
the same experimental run
 replicate measurements are taken during
identical but distinct experimental runs,
which are often randomized

 Center Points
− Experimental runs with all factor levels
set halfway between the low and high
settings.
− Allows you to detect curvature in the
response surface.
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Response Surface
Methodology
 Used to examine the relationship
between a response and a set of
quantitative experimental variables
or factors

 Often employed after you have

identified a "vital few" controllable
factors and you want to find the
factor settings that optimize the
response.

 Designs of this type can detect

curvature in the response surface.
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