Unit – III

Reciprocating, Milling And Gear Cutting Machines

Reciprocating machine tools: shaper, planer, slotter: Types and Operations

Hole making: drilling, reaming, boring, tapping, types of milling operations
– attachments – types of milling cutter, machining time calculations - Gear
cutting: gear hobbing, and gear shaping – gear finishing methods.
Shaping Machine:
• The shaper (also called shaping machine) is a reciprocating type of
machine tool used for producing small flat surfaces with the help of a
single point tool reciprocating over the stationary work piece.
• The ram moves the cutting tool backwards and forwards in straight line.
• The flat surface may be horizontal, inclined or vertical to the working
surface of the machine table.
• The reciprocating motion of the tool is obtained either by the crank and
Slotted lever quick return motion mechanism or Whitworth quick return
motion mechanism.
Working Principle:
• The tool held in the tool holder mounted on the ram moves forward and
backwards in a straight line over the workpiece rigidly held in a vice
clamped over the work table.
• Each time the tool moves forward it cuts a sliver of metal from the
workpiece. Each time the tool moves backward the tool lifts clear of the
workpiece.
• The work remains stationary during the forward stroke of the tool but
moves across by one cross traverse increment during the return stroke.
The appearance of the machined surface is of a succession of closely
straight line cuts.
Types of Shapers:
Shapers are classified under the following headings:
(1) According to the type of mechanism used for giving reciprocating motion to
the ram
(a) Crank shaper
(b) Geared shaper
(c) Hydraulic shaper
(2) According to the position and travel of ram:
(a) Horizontal shaper
(b) Vertical shaper
(3) According to the type of cutting stroke:
(a) Push cut shaper
(b) Draw cut shaper.
(4) According to the type of design of the table:
(a) Standard shaper
(b) Universal shaper

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1. According to the ram driving mechanism
According to the ram driving mechanism, the shapers are classified as follows:
(a) Crank shaper: In a crank shaper, a crank and a slotted lever quick return
motion mechanism is used to give reciprocating motion to the ram. The
crank arm is adjustable and is arranged inside the body of a bull gear.
(b) Geared shaper: In a geared shaper, the ram carries a rack below it, which
is driven by a spur gear. This type of shaper is not widely used.
(c) Hydraulic shaper: In a hydraulic shaper, a hydraulic system is used to drive
the ram. This type of shaper is more efficient than the crank and geared
shaper.
2. According to position and travel of ram
According to the position and travel of ram, the shapers are classified as
follows:
(a) Horizontal shaper: In a horizontal shaper, the ram moves or reciprocates
in a horizontal direction. This type of shaper is mainly used for producing
flat surfaces.
(b) Vertical shaper: In a vertical shaper, the ram reciprocates vertically in the
downward as well as in upward direction. This type of shaper is very
convenient for machining internal surfaces, keyways, slots or grooves. 6
3. According to the direction of cutting stroke
According to the direction of cutting stroke, the shapers are classified as
follows:
(a) Push-Cut shaper: In a push-cut shaper, the ram pushes the tool across the
work during cutting operation. In other words, forward stroke is the
cutting stroke and the backward stroke is an idle stroke. This is the most
general type of shaper used in common practice.
(b) Draw-cut shaper: In a draw-cut shaper, the ram draws or pulls the tool
across the work during cutting operation. In other words, the backward
stroke is the cutting stroke and forward stroke is an idle stroke.
4. According to the design of the table
According to the design of the table, the shapers are classified as:
(a) Standard or plain shaper: In a standard or plain shaper, the table has only
two movements i.e., horizontal and vertical, to give the feed. It can not be
swiveled or tilted.
(b) Universal shaper: In a universal shaper, in addition to the above two
movements, the table can be swiveled about a horizontal axis parallel to
the ram and the upper portion of the table can be tilted about the other
horizontal axis perpendicular to the first axis. This type of shaper is mostly
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used in tool room work.
Parts of a Shaper:
• Base
• Column or Pillar
• Cross rail
• Saddle
• Table
• Ram
• Tool head
• Drive mechanism
9
Base:
• The base of the shaper supports the column or pillar which supports all the
working parts such as ram, work table, drive mechanism etc,.
• Base is a heavy cast iron body.
Column or pillar:
• The shaper has a column which is a ribbed casting of cellular construction.
• The top of the column carries the ram slideways and table slideways are
machined on the front of the casting.
• The crank and slotted link mechanism that drives the ram is contained
within the column.
• The driving motor, the variable speed gearbox, levers, handles and other
controls of shaper are also contained in the column.
Cross rail:
• The cross rail carries of horizontal table slideways and is mounted on the
vertical slideways of the column.
• The cross rail can be raised or lowered by means of an elevating screw.
• It carries the table cross feed screw together with the pawl and ratchet
mechanism.
Saddle:
• Saddle is gibbed to the cross rail and supports the table.
• Crosswise movement of the saddle causes the work table to move
sideways.
Table:
• The worktable is a box shaped casting with T-flots in its upper surface and
down one side.
• The upper surface of the work table is machined to ensure that the
working surface of the table is a true datum for working.
• It can be moved vertically and crosswise with the help of saddle and cross
rail.
Ram:
• Ram is a rigidly braced casting and is located on the top of the column.
• The ram is driven back and forth in its slides by the slotted link
mechanism.
• The ram contains a stroke positioning mechanism and the downfeed
mechanism.
Tool head:
• The tool head slides in a dovetail at the front of the ram by means of T-
bolts. It can swivel from 0 to 90 in a vertical plane.
• The tool head can be raised or lowered by hand feed for vertical cuts on
the workpiece.
• The tool head holds the tool. The tool head imparts the tool, necessary
vertical and angular feed movements.
• Tool slide controls the infeed of the cutting tool into the workpiece ie., it
controls the depth of cut and is adjusted by a lead screw.
• The clapper box allows the cutting tool to lift on the return stroke so that
the tool is not dragged through the uncut workpiece and gets damaged.
• The tool post carries the cutting tool.
Kinematics of shaper:
• The central large bull gear receives its rotation from the motor through
the belt-pulley, clutch, speed gear box and then the pinion.
• The rotation of the crank causes oscillation of the link and thereby
reciprocation of the ram and hence the tool in straight path.
• Cutting velocity which needs to be varied depending upon the tool-work
materials, depends upon the stroke length, L mm , Number of strokes per
min., N and the Quick return ratio, QRR
• The changes in length of stroke and position of the stroke required for
different machining are accomplished respectively by
1. Adjusting the crank length by rotating the bevel gear mounted coaxially
with the bull gear
2. Shifting the nut by rotating the leadscrew
• The main (horizontal) feed motion of the work table is provided at
different rate by using the ratchet – pawl system.
• The vertical feed or change in height of the tool tip from the bed can be
obtained either by lowering the tool or raising the bed by rotating the
respective wheel
Shaper Drive Mechanism:
• A shaper drive mechanism changes the rotary motion of power source
into the reciprocating motion of the ram.
• Metal cutting is carried out during forward stroke of the ram only; the
return stroke of the ram does no cutting and hence is called idle stroke.
• The drive system incorporates a quick return mechanism so that the ram
moves faster during return stroke in order to minimize the idle time.
Some of the drive mechanisms are
• Slotted link quick return mechanism
• Whitworth quick return mechanism
• Hydraulic mechanism
Slotted link quick return mechanism:
• This mechanism gives the ram a higher velocity during the return non
cutting stroke than during its forward stroke thereby reducing the time
during the return stroke.
• The bull gear is driven by a pinion which is connected to the motor shaft
through gear box.
• The bull wheel has a slot. The crank pin A is secured into this slot; at the
same time it can slide in the slotted crank B.
• When the bull wheel rotates, the crank pin A also rotates and side by side
slides through the slot in the slotted crank B.
• This makes the slotted crank to oscillate about its one end C. This
oscillating motion makes ram to reciprocate.
• The intermediate link is necessary to accommodate the rise and fall of
crank.
• The position of the crank pin A in the slot in the bull wheel decides the
length of the stroke of the shaper. The further it is away from the center of
bull wheel, the longer is the stroke.
• The cutting stroke of the ram is completed while the crank pin moves from
A to A1 and the slotted link goes from
* left to right. Similarly, during return

stroke crank pin moves from A1 to A and link moves from right to left.
• The time taken by cutting and idle strokes of the ram is proportional to the
angles AZA1 and A1ZA respectively.

• Since the crank pin A rotates with uniform velocity and  A1ZA is smaller,
it is obvious that the idle return stroke is quicker than the forward cutting
stroke and hence the slotted link mechanism is known as quick return
mechanism.
Whitworth quick return mechanism:
• The shaft of an electric motor drives pinion which rotates the bull gear.
• The bull gear has crank pin.
• A sliding block slides over this crankpin and slides inside the slot of a crank
plate.
• This crank plate is pivoted at the point S eccentrically.
• A connecting rod connects the pin at P on one end and ram at the other
end M.
• When the pinion rotates, the bull is also rotated along with the crank pin.
• At the same time, the sliding block slides on the slot provided on the crank
plate.
• This provides reciprocating motion of ram through a connecting rod.
• When the pin A is at X, the ram is in forward stroke. At that time, the bull
gear rotates anticlockwise direction at angle of .
• When the bull gear rotates further in the same direction from Y to X at an
angle of , the return stroke will takes place. Here, the angle  is lesser
than . So, the time taken for the return stroke is reduced.
Hydraulic mechanism:
• The ram is driven by hydraulic cylinder.
• The speed of the shaper ram and feed of the work table are controlled by
hydraulic mechanism.
• A lever operates a valve that varies the quantity of oil delivered to the ram
cylinder and thereby governs the ram speed.
• The amount of cross or vertical feed of the table is regulated by
handwheel which affects the table feed cylinder.
• The return or idle stroke is faster than the cutting stroke because of
smaller area in the return side of the cylinder (due to presence of piston
rod) if a constant volume pump is used.
Shaper feed mechanism:
• The feeds of shaper are usually obtained by means of a pawl and ratchet
actuating the feed (lead) screw.
• The (slotted) driving disc is driven by a gear connected to bull wheel shaft, the
gearing being such that the disc rotates at the same speed as the bull wheel.
• The driving disc is linked by connecting rod to the rocker arm which carries a
spring loaded reversible pawl. As the disc rotates it causes pawl to oscillate
about the center of the feed screw.
• By off-setting the driving pin on the slotted disc, the rocker arm is made to
oscillate sufficient to move the pawl over one or more teeth of ratchet and so
transmit intermittent motion to the cross-feed lead screw which moves the
work table.
• To reverse the direction of table traverse, the pawl is lifted by the knurled
knob and turned round so that it moves the ratchet wheel in opposite
direction.
• When no feed is required, the pawl is lifted and turned through 90 so that
the pin is out of groove and the pawl is held clear of the ratchet.
• Feed on the shaper is measured in terms of the distance moved by the work
for each cutting stroke made by the ram.
Shaper work holding devices:
• Vices
• Parallel strips
• Clamps
• Jack
• Angle plate
• Vee blocks
• Centers

Shaper operation:
• Horizontal shaping
• Vertical shaping
• Shaping of grooves, slots, steps, keyways
• Angular shaping
• Cutting of splines and gear teeth
Shaper operations:
Shaper cutting speed, Feed, and Depth of cut:
• Cutting speed is defined as the average speed of tool during the cutting
stroke and depends on the number of ram strokes per minute and the
length of the stroke.
• Let L = length of strokes in meters
N = number of strokes per minute
Thus the distance moved by the shaper tool per minute = LN meters
• Since the shaper works only during the cutting stroke, the ratio of cutting
speed to return speed enters into the calculation, as it is necessary to
determine what proportion of time the cutting tool is working.

• In 3/5 minutes the tool cuts LN meters length and therefore in 1 minute
the tool will cut 5LN/3 meters.
• Shaper cutting speed (C.S) = 1.67 LN meters.
• Total number of strokes to complete a job, St = W/f
where W – width of the workpiece, mm
f – feed, mm
• Total time required to complete a job, T = St/N
Machining Time:
Let L – length of stroke (m) of shaper
VC – cutting speed in m/mim
VR – return speed in m/min
f – feed per cycle in m
Machining time = distance travelled (L) / speed
Time for cutting stroke, tC = length of stroke / cutting speed
tC = L/VC
Time for return stroke, tR = length of stroke / return speed
tR = L/VR
Total time for one cycle, T = tC + Tr
Machining time , TM = (W/f) x T
Milling machine:
• In milling machine, the metal is cut by means of a rotating cutter having multiple
cutting edges. For cutting operation, the workpiece is fed against the rotary cutter. As
the workpiece moves against the cutting edges of milling cutter, metal is removed in
form chips of trochoid shape.
• Machined surface is formed in one or more passes of the work. The work to be
machined is held in a vice, a rotary table, a three jaw chuck, an index head, between
centers, in a special fixture or bolted to machine table. The rotatory speed of the
cutting tool and the feed rate of the workpiece depend upon the type of material
being machined.
Principle of milling:
• In milling machine, the metal is cut by means of a rotating cutter having multiple
cutting edges. For cutting operation, the workpiece is fed against the rotary cutter. As
the workpiece moves against the cutting edges of milling cutter, metal is removed in
form chips of trochoid shape.
• Machined surface is formed in one or more passes of the work. The work to be
machined is held in a vice, a rotary table, a three jaw chuck, an index head, between
centers, in a special fixture or bolted to machine table. The rotatory speed of the
cutting tool and the feed rate of the workpiece depend upon the type of material
being machined.
Types of Milling Machines
The milling machines are available in different shapes and sizes. These
machines may be classified as follows:
(1) Column and knee type milling machines
Hand miller
Plain milling machine
Universal milling machines
Vertical milling machines
(2) Fixed - Bed type milling machines
Simplex milling machines
Duplex milling machines
Triplex milling machines
(3) Planer type milling machines
(4) Special purpose milling machines
Rotary table machine
Planetary milling machine
Profiling machine
Pantograph milling machine
Continuous milling machine 31
Horizontal Milling Machine
Vertical Milling Machine
Main parts of milling machine:

Base:
• Base of the machine is a heavy casting that forms the foundation and thus
supports all other parts of the milling machine.
• The base carries the column at its back. Base also carries elevating screw to
support and move the knee up and down.
Column:
• Column is the main casting of the milling machine and it supports various parts
and controls.
• The inner space of the column house the driving motor and the gear mechanism
for transmitting power to the spindle and the worktable of the milling machine.
• The front of the column has vertical parallel column ways in which knee slides up
and down.
• The column also includes a tank for coolant used on the cutter.
• The top of the column supports the overarm which extends outward at the front
of the milling machine.
Knee:
• Within the knee is enclosed the feed charge gearing.
• The knee can be raised or lowered on the column face. It is supported and
can be adjusted by the elevating screw.
• The top of the knee is machined at a right angle to the vertical surface,
and supports the saddle, which slides on the knee either towards or away
from the face of the column.
• The position of knee decides the distance between the cutter and the
workpiece.
Saddle:
• Saddle is mounted on the top of the knee and supports the table.
• A precisely machined surface, usually dovetail, on the top side of the
saddle holds the table.
• Saddle can be moved crosswise on the ways provided on the top of the
knee, thereby providing cross-feed to machine table.
Table:
• Table is mounted on the top of the saddle and holds the workpiece.
• The table has T-slots running lengthwise on its top surface. T-bolts can be
used to fasten either work or work holding device to the table.
• A leadscrew under the table engages a nut on the saddle to move table
horizontally by hand or power.
• The table can be moved up and down by raising or lowering knee on the
column.
• The table can have a transverse movement also by sliding the saddle on
the knee.
Overarm:
• It is mounted on the top of the column and is guided in perfect alignment
by the mechanical dovetailed surfaces.
• The overarm is adjusted horizontally to position the cutter when wide or
narrow workpiece require more adjustment than can be made with
saddle.
Spindle:
• Spindle is a hollow shaft which revolves in bearings in the upper end of
the column.
• The spindle is driven by electric motor, through a train of gears mounted
within the column.
• The front end of the spindle projected from the column face has a tapered
hole and driving keys for receiving the standard shanks of milling arbors.
Arbor:
• Arbor is an accurately made shaft.
• One end has a taper which fits into a corresponding taper in the machine
spindle.
• Arbor is designed to hold rotary milling cutters.
• Arbor is held firmly in place by tightening the drawbar.
Milling machine mechanism:
• The milling machine mechanism is composed of spindle drive mechanism
and table feed mechanism.
• Spindle drive mechanism is incorporated in the column.
• The power feed mechanism contained within the knee A of the machine to
enable the table C to have three different feed movements, ie., vertical,
longitudinal, cross.
• The power is transmitted from gear box H consisting of change gears to
shaft 23 in the knee A of the machine by a telescopic shaft 11.
• Both ends of the shaft 11 are provided with universal joint 10 and 12.
• Telescopic shaft and universal joints are necessary to allow vertical
movement of the knee A.
• Gear 14 attached to the jaw clutch 20, is keyed to the shaft 23 and drives
gear 13 which is free to rotate on the extreme end of the cross feed screw 7.
• Bevel gear 22 is free to rotate on shaft 23 and is in mesh with gear 19
fastened to the elevating screw 15.
• 16 serves as a nut for 15 and as a screw in nut 17.
• 15 and 16 serve as a telescopic screw combination and a vertical movement of
the knee is thus possible.
• As soon as the clutch 20 is engaged with the clutch attached to the bevel gear
22 by means of a lever 4, 22 rotates and this being in mesh with gear 19 causes
the elevating screw 15 to rotate in 16 giving a vertical movement of the knee.
• Likewise, when the clutch 21, which is keyed to the cross feed screw 7, is
engaged with the clutch attached to gear 13, power comes to the screw 7
through gears 14 and 13.
• This causes the screw 7 to rotate in nut 6 of the clamp bed giving a cross feed
movement of the clamp bed D and saddle B.
• Gear 18 is fastened to shaft 23, and meshes with gear 25 which is fastened to
the bevel gear 24.
• Again 24 meshes with gear 5 attached to a vertical shaft which carries at its
upper end another bevel gear 3.
• Gear 3 meshes with gear 2 which is fastened to the table feed screw 1.
• Therefore, longitudinal feed movement of the table is possible through gears
18, 25, 24, 5, 3 and 2.
Milling machine attachments:
• Vertical milling attachment
• Universal milling attachment
• High speed milling attachment
• Slotting attachment
• Universal spiral milling attachment
• Rack milling attachment
• Circular milling attachment
• Dividing head attachment
TYPES OF MILLING CUTTERS
• Fig. illustrates some types of milling cutters along with workpieces. Milling
cutters are made in various forms to perform certain classes of work, and
they may be classified as:
(1) Plain milling cutters,
(2) Side milling cutters,
(3) Face milling cutter,
(4) Angle milling cutters,
(5) End milling cutter,
(6) Fly cutter,
(7) T-slot milling cutter,
(8) Formed cutters,
(9) Metal slitting saw,
• Milling cutters may have teeth on the periphery or ends only, or on both the
periphery and ends. Peripheral teeth may be straight or parallel to the cutter
axis, or they may be helical, sometimes referred as spiral teeth.

43
44
Milling Machine Operations
• The operations that can be performed on a milling machine are broadly
classified as follows:
(1) Plain Milling
(2) Face Milling
(3) Angular Milling
(4) Staggered Milling
(5) Form Milling
(6) End Milling

45
Plain Milling
• It is also known by slab milling. A plain milling cutter is used to produce a
plain, flat, horizontal surface parallel to the axis of rotation. The work is
mounted on a table and the tool is secured properly on the spindle. The
speed and feed of the machine is set up before starting the operation and the
depth of cut is adjusted by rotating the vertical feed screw of the table.

46
Face Milling
• The face milling operation is used for machining flat surfaces by a face milling
cutter which is rotating in an axis perpendicular to the work surface. The
depth of cut is adjusted by rotating the tables cross feed screw.

47
Angular Milling
• The angular milling is the operation used for machining flat surfaces at an
angle. Depending upon whether the machining has to be carried out in a
single or two mutually inclined surfaces, a single or double angle cutter may
be used. The V-blocks of any size can be machined by this operation.

48
Staggered Milling
• These types of cutters are narrow and cylindrical having staggered teeth and
with alternate teeth having opposite helix angles. These cutters are used for
milling deep slots.

49
Form Milling
• These types of milling cutters are used to cut some profile or contour on the
work piece. These can be used to cut convex, concave, corner rounding and
gear tooth in the work piece.

50
End Milling
• These types of cutters have teeth on the circumferential surface at one end.
They are used for facing, profiling and end milling operations.

51
Indexing or Dividing Heads:
• Indexing is the process of dividing the periphery of a job into equal number
of divisions. For doing this indexing, an attachment known as dividing head is
used with the milling machine.

Types of dividing heads:

• Plain or simple dividing head.
• Universal dividing head.
• Optical dividing head.

Plain or simple dividing head:

• A plain dividing head has a fixed spindle axis ie., spindle rotates about a
horizontal axis only.
• The worm wheel has 40 teeth and is keyed to spindle. The worm meshes
with the worm wheel. The worm has a single thread.
• Every turn of the index pin turns the worm one revolution, moving the worm
wheel one tooth or 1/40 of a revolution.
• 40 revolution of the worm will turn the index head spindle and the job
one complete revolution.
• Fractional parts of a turn are obtained by utilizing index plates that are
supplied with each head.
• The sector arms are used to mark off the number of holes on the index
plate.
• This makes it possible to move the index crank pin the same number of
holes without having to count the holes on each turn.
• Plain dividing heads are used for direct indexing into a small number of
parts.
• Plain dividing head may be intended for divisions into 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24
parts
Universal dividing head:
• In universal model the spindle can be located at any angle from horizontal to
vertical.
• The driving mechanism consists of a worm drive, index plates, sector arms,
change gears and spindle.
• The worm meshes with the worm gear. The worm is mounted on a shaft, the
crank is fitted at other end of the shaft.
• The worm gear has 40 teeth and the worm is single threaded. So, 40 turns of
the crank will move the spindle by one complete revolution.
• Fractional parts of a turn are obtained by utilizing index plates.
• An index plate is a circular disc having equally spaced holes arranged in
concentric circles.
• The index plate is fastened to a bevel gear which is loosely mounted on a
worm shaft.
• Normally, index plate is kept stationary by a lock pin. The lock pin locks the
index plate with the body of the dividing head.
• An indexing head is commonly furnished with three index plates, each
having six hole circles with different number of holes in each circle.
• The first index plate has 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 and 20 hole circles; second plate
has 21, 23, 27, 29, 31 and 33 hole circles; third plate has 37, 39, 41, 43, 47,
and 49 hole circles.
• To index the work through any required angle, the index crank pin is
withdrawn from index plate and the spindle is rotated through the
required angle by turning the index crank through calculated number of
whole revolutions and holes on one of the hole circles after which the
index pin is relocated in the required hole.
Methods of indexing:
• Rapid or direct indexing
• Simple or plain indexing
• Compound indexing
• Differential indexing
• Angular indexing

Rapid or direct indexing:

• It is the simplest method of indexing and is used only on work that
requires a small number of divisions, such as square or hexagonal nuts
etc.,
• In direct indexing the spindle is turned through a given angle without the
inter position of gearing.
• The dividing head has an index plate directly fitted on the spindle. The
index plate has 24 holes. Crank maybe rotated to divide the periphery of
the workpiece into the divisions 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 24 directly.
• Since index plate is directly fastened to the spindle, one complete
revolution of the index plate rotates the spindle also by one complete
revolution.
• If indexing is to be carried out for a hexagon head screw, then the number
of holes to move in the index plate is given by
number of holes = 24/N
= 24/6 = 4 holes.

Simple or plain indexing:

• Plain indexing is employed when it is required to divide a circle into more
number of parts than is possible by rapid indexing.
• A worm and worm wheel is interposed between the index plate and the
spindle. Different index plates with varying number of holes circles may be
used to increase the range of indexing.
• Since the ratio between the worm and worm wheel is 1:40, one turn of
the index crank turns the index head spindle 1/40 of a complete turn.
• To find the number of turns (T) of the index crank, divide 40 by the
number of required divisions (N) of the periphery of the workpiece.
T = 40/N
• If the number of divisions (N) required does not divide evenly into 40, the
index crank must be moved a faction part of a turn.
• Index plate 1 : 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20
• Index plate 2 : 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 33
• Index plate 3 : 37, 39, 41, 43, 47, 49
Example:
• Index for 8 divisions: T = 40/8 = 5 (crank has to rotate for 5 complete
turns to index the job through one division)
• Index for 136 divisions: T = 40/136 = 5/17 (Index plate 1 has to go a 17
hole circle, so for each division turn the crank to move by 5 holes)
• Index for 6 divisions: T = 40/6 = 6 x 2/3 [2/3 = 18/27 = 22/33 and so on]
therefore for each division, rotate the crank through 6 complete turns plus
18/22 holes on a 27/33 hole circle of index plate 2.
Compound indexing:
• Compound indexing is employed to obtain number of divisions that are
beyond the range of plain indexing system.
• If nine of the indexing plates provided with the indexing head has a
number of holes that is suitable for providing the correct number of holes
for the required fractional turn of the index crank, compound indexing is
used.
• The desired spindle movement is obtained, by first turning the index crank
through required number of spaces in one of the hole circles of the index
plate in one direction as in plain indexing and then turning the index plate
together with the index crank in the same direction or in opposite
direction through the calculated number of spaces of another hole circle.
• The effective indexing movement will be the algebraic sum of the
movement of the index crank and of the index plate.
• For doing compound indexing, select one index plate. Let its two circles
have a number of holes a and b. use the expression given below and
simplify.

• If the numerator comes out to be unity, hole circles selected are correct. If
numerator is not a unity, then different hole circles has to be selected. It is
a hit and trail method.
• Suppose we get 1/x after simplification, if a and b are the number of holes
on the two circles, the indexing movement is

• After finding the values of a and b, check that the algebraic sum of the two
movements by the formula
Differential indexing:
Differential indexing is obtained by the combination of two movements
• The movement of the index crank similar to the simple indexing.
• The simultaneous movement of the index plate, when the crank is turned.
• In differential indexing, gear train is used to connect the dividing head
spindle to the index plate.
• In differential indexing, the index plate is unlocked and connected to a
train of gears that receive their motion from the worm-gear spindle.
• The index plate is free to rotate on the worm shaft but fixed with the bevel
gear. Therefore, when the handle is rotated in some direction, the index
plate will also rotate though comparatively very slow according to the gear
ratio, either in same or in opposite to the direction of handle.
• Standard gears in differential indexing have the following number of teeth.
24 (two gears), 28, 32, 40, 44, 48, 56, 64, 72, 86 and 100 (one gear each)
and 46, 47, 52, 58, 68, 70, 76 and 84 (special gears)
• Rules for differential indexing:

where
A – the assumed number of divisions that can indexed by plain indexing
N – the required number of divisions to be indexed on the workpiece
Index crank movement = 40/A
• If (A-N) is positive, the index plate must rotate in the same direction as the
crank
• If (A-N) is negative, the index plate must rotate in the opposite direction to
the crank
• To achieve these conditions, the number of idle gears used depends on
the following factors.
a. If the gear train is simple and (A-N) is positive, only one idle gear is used.
b. If the gear train is compound and (A-N) is positive, no idle gear is used.
c. If the gear train is simple and (A-N) is negative, two idle gears are used.
d. If the gear train is compound and (A-N) is negative, only one idle gear is
used
Gear Hobbing:
• The most accurate way of cutting spur and helical gear is by the hobbing
process.
• The cutter used in this process is known as hob, which is a rotary cutting
tool with teeth arranged along a helical thread.
Construction of hobbing machine:
• Column 2, worktable 11, and work-arbor support 8 are mounted on the
bed 1.
• Main drive 3, mounted in column 2, powers all the mechanisms of the
hobbing machine.
• Additional drive 4, providing for rapid traverse of hob slide 5, is mounted
on the top of the column.
• Hob 6, with its spindle and drive are mounted in the hob slide whose
saddle travels vertically along the column ways.
• The circular work table with arbor 10 on which gear blank 9 is clamped can
travel horizontally along the bed ways by means of a special mechanism.
• The upper end of the arbor is supported by arm 7.
• The hob and gear blank are fastened to shafts which are at right angles to
each other.
• The axis of the hob may be either vertical or horizontal. The hob must be
tilted through its helix angle when machining straight spur gears so that its
teeth are square with the blank and produce a true involute shape.
The gear hobbing cycle is
• Let both the hob and gear blank rotate about their axis.
• Move the gear blank toward the rotating hob until the proper depth of cut
is reached. The hob is either to the full height of the teeth (depth of cut) in
hobbing a gear in a single pass, or in cutting gears in two passes.
• Then, feed the rotating hob, H, along the axis of the gear blank, B,
enabling the teeth to be gradually cut over the full face of the gear blank.
• The feed rate of hob is 0.05 to 0.375 mm per revolution of the gear blank.
• The cutting process is continuous from one end of the gear blank to the
other.
• Both the hob and gear blank rotate during the entire process. Several
cutting teeth of the hob are simultaneously in operation.
• The hob teeth gradually cut the tooth space of the gear while the hob
rotates in time relation with the blank.
• As the gear blank is rotating, each successive hob tooth cuts a little
deeper, first down into one side of the gear tooth and then up out of the
other side. This process is called generating a gear tooth profile.
• Gears can be cut either by climb hobbing or conventional hobbing.
• Climb hobbing – the direction of rotation of hob coincides with the
direction of work feed.
• Conventional hobbing – hob rotates in a direction opposite to that in
which the gear blank is fed.
• The smooth cutting action makes it possible to generate quite accurate
gears. Hobbing can also be used to make worm gears, sprockets, splines
etc.,
• Hobbing cannot be used to cut internal gears.
Gear shaping:
• Gear shaping is used for cutting spur, herringbone gears, ratchets, splines
etc., of almost any pitch and diameter, internal or external gears.
• Work table8 with arbor 7 for clamping gear blank 6 is mounted on base 1.
• Rail 5, at the upper part of the column has ways for horizontal traverse of
head 4 with cutter arbor 2 (this traverse is used in setting up the machine
when the diameter of the cutter or gear blank is changed).
• All the mechanisms are powered by main drive 3 located at the top of the
rail.
• Secured at the end of the arbor is gear shaping cutter 9 which both
reciprocates and rotates about its axis in coordination with the gear blank.
• The blank is rapidly withdrawn horizontally at the end of each cutting
stroke so that no rubbing occurs; it is returned before the next cutting
stroke.
Gear shaping operation:
• Gear shaping process makes use of a hardened pinion as cutter, ground
with top rake and clearance.
• Gear shaping cutter 1 receives reciprocating movement which is the
principal movement.
• In addition to the reciprocating movement of the cutter, both the cutter
and blank rotate at the same pitch line velocity.
• The relative speed of rotation of the cutter and gear is same as the gear to
be cut will have with pinion of same number of teeth as the cutter.
• The radial movement is imparted to the shaping cutter when it is to be fed
into the depth of cut.
The gear cutting cycle is
• Cutter is fed into full depth, with cutter reciprocating and blank stationary.
• Both, cutter and blank slowly rotate about their axis until all the teeth are
generated upon the gear blank.
• The cutter is reciprocated along its own axis at high speed and at the same
time, a feed advance motion is applied to both the cutter and gear blank
(by rotating them slowly), thus presenting different parts of the flanks of
the cutter to the gear blank to form involute profile.
• The cutter reciprocates across the blank face, can cut either on the
upward or downward stroke.
• As with most gear cutting, the blank is usually roughed say three-quarter
depth, followed by a finishing cut.
• Advantage of gear shaping is that only one cutter is needed to cut all gears
of the same pitch.
Slotting Machine:
• A slotting machine or slotter maybe considered as a vertical shaper.
• The chief difference between a shaper and a slotter is the direction of the
cutting action.
• The tool moves in vertical direction rather than a horizontal direction.
Uses of slotter:
• To cut slots, splines, keyways – both internal and external
• Machining internal and external gears
• Machining dies and punches.

Parts of slotter:
Bed or Base:
• It is made of cast iron.
• It supports column, table, ram ,driving mechanisms.
• The top of the bed carries horizontal ways along which the work table can
traverse.
Table:
• Table of a slotter holds the workpiece and is adjustable in longitudinal and
crosswise directions.
• The table can be rotated about its center.
Column:
• Column is the vertical member, made up of cast iron and it houses the
driving mechanism.
• The vertical front face of the column is accurately finished for providing
ways along which the ram moves up and down.
Ram:
• Ram reciprocates vertically up and down.
• At its bottom, it carries the cutting tool. It is more massive and moves
vertically, at right angle to the work table.
Cross-slide:
• Cross-slide can be moved parallel to the face of the column.
• The circular work table is mounted on the top of the cross-slide.
Slotter drive mechanisms:
The slotted disc mechanism:
• The driving pinion gets drive from a pulley run through the belt by motor.
• The pinion rotates the gear which in turn rotates the slotted driving disc.
• The rotation of the slotted disc is converted into the vertical reciprocating
motion of the ram with the help of connecting rod.
• The length of stroke of ram can be changed by shifting the crank pin
towards or away from the center of the slotted driving disc.
• Position the stroke is adjusted with the help of hand lever provided for
stroke adjustment.
Slotter feed mechanism:
• The power feed mechanism makes use of a ratchet and pawl mechanism.
• The feed shaft engaged with cross, longitudinal / rotary feed screws has
the ratchet mounted on it.
• The ratchet is moved by a small amount in one direction only with the
help of a connecting rod, lever, and the roller that moves in the cam
groove cut on the face of the bull gear of the slotting machine.
Types of slotters:
• Puncher slotter
• General production slotters
• Precision tool room slotters
• Keys eater

Slotter operations:
• Internal grooves or keyways
• Internal gears
• Recesses
• Concave, circular and convex surfaces.
Planing machine:
• Planers are used primary used to produce horizontal, vertical, or inclined
flat surfaces, but on workpieces that are too large to be accommodated in
shapers.
• Planer are used to machine multiple small parts held in the line on the
platen.
Principle of operation:
• The workpiece is clamped on the worktable. The worktable rides on the
grooves on the base of the planer and is accurately guided as it travels
back and forth.
• Cutting tools are held in tool heads that can travel from side to side ie., in
a direction at right angle to the direction of motion of the worktable.
• Tool-heads are mounted on a horizontal cross-rail that can be moved up
and down.
• Cutting is achieved by applying the linear primary motion to the workpiece
and feeding the tool at right angles to this motion.
Parts of the Planer:
Bed:
• The bed of planer must be a weldment or casting twice as long as the
table.
• The bed has accurately finished ways on which the worktable slides.
• The gearing or hydraulic cylinder for driving the table is housed under the
bed.
Worktable:
• The table is a heavy rectangular casting which carries the work past the
cutting heads.
• It travels on a Vee or flat ways of the bed.
• The table is driven either by a very long hydraulic cylinder or by a pinion
gear driving a rack which is fastened under the center of the table.
• The upper surface of the table has T-slots in it to facilitate the clamping of
the work or vises and special fixtures.
Column or housing:
• The frame is basically two heavy columns fastened together at the top
with a large bracing section and fastened at the bottom to the machine
bed.
• This creates a very strong, rigid structure which will handle heavy loads
without deflection.
Cross-rail:
• It is mounted in a horizontal position on the vertical ways of housing.
• It slides up and down on vee or flat ways, controlled by hand or power-
operated screws.
• The purpose of the cross-rail is to carry the vertical tool-heads which by
means of feed screw maybe moved from left to right.
Saddle:
• The saddle is fitted to the ways of the cross-rail. On its front surface are
ways to which the tool head is fitted together with a vertical feed screw
that provides for a vertical movement of the tool head.
Tool head:
• The tool head is attached to the saddle which contains the tool post which
in turn holds the cutting tool.
• The tool post is hinged to the head so that on the return movement of the
table the cutting tool will be raised and ride on the top of the work. This
saves the cutting edge of the tool from being damaged.
• A feed screw is provided to move the tool head with respect to work. The
tool head can be swiveled for taking angular cuts.
Drilling:
• This is the operation of making a circular hole by removing a volume of
metal from the job by a rotating cutting tool called drill.
Construction Of Drilling Machine:
• In drilling machine, the drill is rotated and fed along its axis of rotation in the
stationary workpiece.
• The head containing electric motor, V-pulleys and V-belt which transmit
rotary motion to the drill spindle at a number of speeds.
• Spindle is made up of alloy steel. It rotates as well as moves up and down in
a sleeve. A pinion engages a rack fixed onto the sleeve to provide vertical up
and down motion of the spindle and hence the drill so that the same can be
fed into the workpiece or withdrawn from it while drilling. Spindle speed or
the drill speed is changed with the help of V-belt and V-step-pulleys. Larger
drilling machines are having gear boxes for the said purpose.
• Drill chuck is held at the end of the drill spindle and in turn it holds the drill
bit.
• Adjustable work piece table is supported on the column of the drilling
machine. It can be moved both vertically and horizontally.

91
• Base table is a heavy casting and it supports the drill press structure. The
base supports the column, which in turn, supports the table, head etc.
• Column is a vertical round or box section which rests on the base and
supports the head and the table. The round column may have rack teeth cut
on it so that the table can be raised or lowered depending upon the
workpiece requirements. This machine consists of following parts
1. Base
2. Pillar
3. Main drive
4. Drill spindle
5. Feed handle
6. Work table

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93
Upright Drilling Machine Parts:
Base:
• The base is that part of the machine on which the vertical column is
mounted.
• In a belt driven machine the countershaft consisting of fast and loose
pulley and cone pulley is fitted to the base of the machine.
• The top of the base in round column section type upright drilling machine
is accurately machined and has T-slots on it so that large workpieces and
workholding devices maybe set up and bolted to it.

Column:
• The column is the vertical member of the machine which supports the
table and head containing all the driving mechanism.
• Column should be rigid so that it can take up the entire cutting pressure of
the drill.
Table:
• The table is mounted on the column and is provided with T-slots for
clamping the work directly.
• The table of the drilling machine have three types of arrangement :
vertical adjustment, radial adjustment about the column, and circular
adjustment about its own axis.
Head:
• The drill head is mounted on the top of the column and houses the driving
and feeding mechanism for the spindle.
• Drill head may be adjusted up and down for accommodating different
heights of work.
Spindle and drill head assembly:
• The spindle is the vertical shaft which holds the drill.
• It receives its motion from top shaft through bevel gears.
• A long key-way is cut on the spindle and the bevel gear is connected to it
by a sliding key. This construction is made to allow spindle to be
connected with the top shaft irrespective of its position when the spindle
is raised or lowered for feeding the drill into the work.
• The spindle rotates within a non-rotating sleeve known as quill/sleeve.
• Rack teeth are cut on the outer surface of the sleeve. The sleeve can be
moved up or down by rotating the pinion which meshes with the rack and
this movement is imparted to the spindle to give the required feed.
• The downward movement of the spindle is effected by rotating the pinion
which causes the quill to move downward exerting pressure on the
spindle through a thrust bearing and washer.
• The spindle is moved upward by the upward pressure exerted by the quill
acting against the nut attached to the spindle through the thrust bearing.
• The lower end of the spindle is provided with Morse taper hole for
accommodating taper shank drill.
• A slot is provided at the end of the taper hole for holding tang of the drill
to impart it a positive drive. A drift or key may be pushed through slot for
removing drill.
Spindle drive mechanism:
Step cone pulley drive with back gear:
• The counter shaft mounted on the base of the machine receives power
from overhead line shaft.
• The belt on the fast and loose pulley may be shifted to start or stop the
countershaft.
• The countershaft cone pulley 18 and the top shaft cone pulley 16 are
connected together by a belt 17.
• Gear Z1(14) and the pulley 16 are attached together on a hollow shaft 15.
• The clutch 13 is keyed to the shaft 10 and the clutch may be shifted
towards the right to be engaged with the gear Z1(14).
• Gear Z4(12) is keyed to the shaft 10.
• Back gears Z2(24) and Z3(22) are joined together by a sleeve 25 in the
center of which a groove is turned to receive a C shaped shifter attached
to the lever 21. This lever has a similar connection with the clutch 13 and
is fulcrumed on the frame below the gears.
• The back gears Z2 and Z3 are in mesh with the gears Z1 and Z4 respectiely.
• The motion is transmitted from the bottom cone pulley 18 to the top cone
pulley 16, then through gears Z1, Z2, Z3, Z4 to the shaft 10 which rotates
at a slower speed.
• The shaft 10 transmits motion to the drill spindle 8 through bevel gear 9.
• In order to change the spindle speed, the belt maybe shifted on different
steps of the cone pulley and the number of spindle speeds with the back
gears in position is equal to the number of steps on the cone pulley.
• The spindle speed with the back gears in position may be derived as

• To obtain additional speeds, lever 21 is shifted, which will cause gears Z2

and Z3 to be disengaged with gears Z1 and Z4 and will cause the clutch 13
to be engaged with the gear Z1.
• The motion is now transmitted from the pulley 16 to the gear Z1 and from
gear Z1 to the shaft 10 through the clutch 13.
• The spindle 8 now receives motion directly from the pulley 16 and the
speed of the spindle is equal to the speed of the pulley 16.
• The speed may be altered by shifting the belt on different steps.
• Thus 4 direct speeds are obtained with back gear out and 4 indirect
speeds with back gears in, making altogether 8 speeds.
Feed mechanism:
• In a drilling machine, the feed is effected by the vertical movement of the
drill into the work.
The hand feed may be applied by two methods:
• Quick traverse hand feed
• Sensitive hand feed
• The quick traverse feed is used to bring the cutting tool rapidly to the hole
location or for withdrawing the drill when the operation is completed.
• The sensitive hand feed is applied for trial cut and for drilling small holes.
• The automatic fed is applied while drilling larger diameter holes as the
cutting pressure required is sufficiently great.
• The automatic feed motion is derived from the top shaft 10 through worm
gearing 11 to a six speed feed box.
• The feed changes are effected by the lever 33 operating a sliding key
mechanism.
• In the feed box, six gears are mounted on the worm gear shaft are
constantly in mesh with another six gears mounted on the driven shaft.
• Gears on the driven shaft are all keyed to the shaft and rotate with it.
• Gears on the worm gear shaft are all free to rotate, but may be keyed to the
shaft by a sliding key only by one gear at a time.
• Thus six different speeds of driven shaft are obtained by sliding the key to
engage with six different gears on the worm shaft.
• The motion of the driven shaft is transmitted to the shaft 28 through two
mating bevel gears 27 and clutch 29.
• The worm 30 mounted on the shaft 28 operates the worm gear 5 mounted
on the shaft.
• The small pinion 2 fitted at the end of this shaft meshes with the rack 31
which is bolted to the quill 3.
• The rotation of the pinion 2 causes the quill 3 to move up and down giving
spindle feed.
• When the sensitive hand feed is applied, the clutch 29 is disconnected. The
sensitive feed hand wheel 1 is attached to the rear end of the worm shaft 28.
• Rotation of the hand wheel 1 will cause the worm and worm gear to rotate
and a slow but sensitive feed is obtained.
• Quick hand feed is obtained by rotating the hand wheel 4 and operating
the clutch mounted on the worm gear shaft.
• One turn of the hand wheel 4 will cause the pinion 2 to rotate through
one complete revolution giving quick hand feed movement of the spindle.
Operations performed on Drilling Machine:
• Drilling – to produce a circular hole.
• Reaming – cannot produce a hole but can accurately size and finish
already drilled holes.
• Boring – enlarges a hole, sizes it and finishes it.
• Counter boring – enlarges a hole only for a small length in order to
accommodate the heads of the bolt, studs, etc.
• Counter sinking – cone shaped end of the hole accommodates a flat head
screw.
• Spot facing – provides a locally machined, flat seating around a hole for
nuts or bolts-heads.
• Tapping – cutting threads in drilled hole.
• Grinding – hardened hole may be sized and finished with the help of
grinding operation carried on drill press.
• Boring: It is an operation of enlarging a hole that has already been drilled by a
single point tool, so as to make it we to the required size.

• Reaming: It is an operation of slightly enlarging a machined hole to proper

size with a smooth finish. The reamer is an accurate tool and is not designed
to remove much metal. The reaming allowance is usually 0.2 mm only.

• Tapping: It is an operation of producing internal threads in a hole by means of

a tool called tap.

105