Mr. B. J. N.

SATISH
Assistant Professor in Civil Engineering
Vignan University , Guntur.
Behaviour in Tension

 Figure shows a typical tensile test specimen of mild steel. Its ends are

gripped into universal testing machine.

 Extensometer is fitted to test specimen which measures extension over the
length L1, shown in Fig.
 The length over which extension is measured is called gauge length.
 The load is applied gradually and at regular interval of loads extension is
measured.
 After certain load, extension increases at faster rate and the capacity of
extensometer to measure extension comes to an end and, hence, it is
removed before this stage is reached and extension is measured from scale
on the universal testing machine. Load is increased gradually till the
specimen breaks.
Stress-Strain Curve

Load divided by original cross-sectional area is called as Nominal Stress or simply as Stress.
(a) Limit of Proportionality (A): It is the limiting value of the stress up to which stress is
proportional to strain. (Hook’s Law is valid up to this limit)

(b) Elastic Limit: This is the limiting value of stress up to which if the material is stressed and
then released (unloaded) strain disappears completely and the original length
is regained. This point is slightly beyond the limit of proportionality.

(c) Upper Yield Point (B): This is the stress at which, the load starts reducing and the
extension increases. This phenomenon is called yielding of material. At this stage strain is about
0.125 per cent and stress is about 250 N/mm2.

(d) Lower Yield Point (C) : At this stage the stress remains same but strain increases for some
time. (used as design strength)
(e) Ultimate Stress (D): This is the maximum stress the material can resist. This stress is
about 370–400 N/mm2. At this stage cross-sectional area at a particular section starts
reducing very fast (Fig). This is called neck formation. After this stage load resisted and
hence the stress developed starts reducing.

(f) Breaking Point (E): The stress at which finally the specimen fails is called breaking
point. At this strain is 20 to 25 per cent. If unloading is made within elastic limit the
original length is regained i.e., the stress-strain curve

(g) Permanent set : If the specimen is loaded beyond elastic limit and then unloaded a
permanent strain (OF) is left in the specimen.
NOMINAL STRESS AND TRUE STRESS
 Nominal Stress =Load / Original Cross-sectional Area

 True Stress = Load / Actual Cross-sectional Area

FACTOR OF SAFETY

 The maximum stress to which any member is designed is much less than the
ultimate stress, and this stress is called Working Stress. The ratio of ultimate
stress to working stress is called factor of safety.

Factor of Safety = Ultimate Stress / Working Stress

1. For steel – 1.85

2. For concrete – 3
3. For timber – 4 to 6
EXTENSION/SHORTENING OF A BAR :
 Problems

 A circular rod of diameter 16 mm and 500 mm long is subjected to
a tensile force 40kN. The modulus of elasticity for steel may be
taken as 200 kN/mm2. Find stress, strain and elongation of the
bar due to applied load ?
 A Surveyor’s steel tape 30 m long has a cross-section of 15 mm × 0.75
mm. With this, line AB is measure as 150 m. If the force applied during
measurement is 120 N more than the force applied at the time of
calibration, what is the actual length of the line?

 A hollow steel tube is to be used to carry an axial compressive load of 160

kN. The yield stress for steel is 250 N/mm2. A factor of safety of 1.75 is to
be used in the design. The following three class of tubes of external
diameter 101.6 mm are available?
Class Thickness
Light 3.65 mm
Medium 4.05 mm
Heavy 4.85 mm
 A specimen of steel 20 mm diameter with a gauge length of 200 mm is tested
to destruction. It has an extension of 0.25 mm under a load of 80 kN and the
load at elastic limit is 102 kN. The maximum load is 130 kN. The total
extension at fracture is 56 mm and diameter at neck is 15 mm. Find
(i) The stress at elastic limit.
(ii) Young’s modulus.
(iii) Percentage elongation.
(iv) Percentage reduction in area.
(v) Ultimate tensile stress.
BARS WITH CROSS-SECTIONS VARYING IN STEPS


 SHEAR STRESS

 A bar subject to direct shearing force i.e., the force parallel to the cross-
section of bar.
For equilibrium Q = R = qA

Shear stress q= Q/A

 A material is said to be in a state of simple shear if it is subjected to only
shearing stress.
Simple shear gives rise to tensile and
Shearing strain. Shearing stress
compressive stresses across planes
has a tendency to distort the
inclined at 45° to the shearing planes,
element to position AB′C′D from
the intensity of direct stresses being of
the original position ABCD
same magnitude as shearing stress.
 VOLUMETRIC STRAIN


 The ratio of the change in volume to original volume is called volumetric
strain.
 Volumetric strain is sum of strains in three mutually perpendicular directions.
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MODULUS OF
ELASTICITY (E) AND RIGIDITY MODULUS (G)


Simple shear gives rise to tensile and compressive stresses
across planes inclined at 45° to the shearing planes, the
intensity of direct stresses being of same magnitude as
shearing stress.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MODULUS OF
ELASTICITY AND BULK MODULUS


1. A bar of 25 mm diameter is tested in tension. It is observed that
when a load of 60 kN is applied, the extension measured over a
gauge length of 200 mm is 0.12 mm and contraction in diameter
is 0.0045 mm. Find Poisson’s ratio and elastic constants E, G, K.
2. A circular rod of 25 mm diameter and 500 mm long is subjected
to a tensile force of 60 kN. Determine modulus of rigidity, bulk
modulus and change in volume if Poisson’s ratio = 0.3 and
Young’s modulus E = 200 GPa.
3. A 400 mm long bar has rectangular cross-section 10 mm × 30
mm. This bar is
subjected to
(i) 15 kN tensile force on 10 mm × 30 mm faces,
(ii) 80 kN compressive force on 10 mm × 400 mm faces, and
(iii) 180 kN tensile force on 30 mm × 400 mm faces.
Find the change in volume if E = 200 GPa and μ = 0.3.

4. A bar of rectangular section shown in Fig. is subjected to

stresses px, py and pz in x, y and z directions respectively. Show
that if sum of these stresses is zero, there is no change in volume
of the bar.
5. In a laboratory, tensile test is conducted and Young’s modulus of
the material is found to be 200 GPa. On the same material torsion
test is conducted and modulus of rigidity is found to be 78 GPa.
Determine Poisson’s Ratio and bulk modulus of the material.

6. A material has modulus of rigidity equal to 40 GPa and bulk

modulus equal to 80 GPa. Find its Young’s Modulus and Poisson’s
Ratio.
BARS WITH CONTINUOUSLY VARYING
CROSS-SECTIONS

 Cross-section varies continuously
 Consider a bar of uniform thickness ‘t’ tapers uniformly from a width of b1 at one end to
b2 at other end in a length ‘L’ as shown in Fig. subjected to tensile force P at both ends.
 Consider an elemental length dx at a distance ‘x’ from larger end
 Rate of change of breadth is = ( b1 – b2)/L
 Consider a tapering rod of diameter d1 at one end and it tapers uniformly to a diameter
d2 at the other end in a length L as shown in Fig with the application of tensile force ‘P’
 Change in diameter in length L is d1 – d2
 Rate of change of diameter = k=(d1 – d2)/L
 Consider an elemental length of bar dx at a distance x from larger end.
 A steel flat of thickness 10 mm tapers uniformly from 60 mm at one end to 40 mm
at other end in a length of 600 mm. If the bar is subjected to a load of 80 kN, find
its extension. Take E = 200 GPa. What is the percentage error if average area is
used for calculating extension?
 A 2.0 m long steel bar is having uniform diameter of 40 mm for a length of 1 m
and in the next 0.5 m its diameter gradually reduces from 40 mm to 20 mm as
shown in Fig. Determine the elongation of this bar when subjected to an axial
tensile load of 200 kN. Given E = 200 GPa.
Elongation due to Self Weight


Bar of Uniform Strength

COMPOSITE/COMPOUND BARS


 Bars made up of two or more materials are called composite/compound bars. They
may have same length or different lengths as shown in Fig. The ends of different
materials of the bar are held together under loaded conditions.

 Consider a member with two materials. Let the load shared by material 1 be P1 and
that by material 2 be P2.
(i) From equation of equilibrium of the forces, we get
P = P1 + P2 ..
(ii) Since the ends are held securely, we get
Δl1 = Δl2
where Δl1and Δl2 are the extension of the bars of material 1 and 2 respectively.
 A compound bar of length 600 mm consists of a strip of aluminium 40 mm
wide and 20 mm thick and a strip of steel 60 mm wide × 15 mm thick rigidly
joined at the ends. If elastic modulus of aluminium and steel are 100GPa
and 200GPa, determine the stresses developed in each material and the
extension of the compound bar when axial tensile force of 60 kN acts.
 A compound bar consists of a circular rod of steel of 25 mm diameter
rigidly fixed into a copper tube of internal diameter 25 mm and external
diameter 40 mm as shown in Fig. If the compound bar is subjected to a
load of 120 kN, find the stresses developed in the two materials.

Take Es = 2 ×105 N/mm2 and Ec = 1.2 × 105 N/mm2.

 A reinforced concrete column of size 300 mm × 600 mm has 8 steel bars of
16 mm diameter as shown in Fig. If the column is subjected to an axial
compressive force of 800 kN, find the stresses developed in steel and
concrete. Take modular ratio (Es/Ec) as 18 .
 Three pillars, two of aluminium and one of steel support a rigid platform of
250 kN as shown in Fig. If area of each aluminium pillar is 1200 mm2 and
that of steel pillar is 1000 mm2, find the stresses developed in each pillar.
Take Es = 2 × 105 N/mm2 and Ea = 1 × 105N/mm2.
 A steel bolt of 20 mm diameter passes centrally through a copper tube of internal
diameter 28 mm and external diameter 40 mm. The length of whole assembly is
600 mm. After tight fitting of the assembly, the nut is over tightened by quarter of a
turn. What are the stresses introduced in the bolt and tube, if pitch of nut is 2 mm?
Take Es = 2 × 105 N/mm2 and Ec = 1.2 × 105 N/mm2.
 Thermal Stress

Every material expands when temperature rises and contracts when
temperature falls.
Thus
Δ ∝ tL
= α tL ...
The constant of proportionality α is called coefficient of thermal expansion
and is defined as change in unit length of material due to unit change in
temperature.
If the expansion of the member is freely permitted

No temperature stresses are induced in the material.

If the free expansion is prevented fully
 Δ = α tL

PL/AE = α tL

p = E α t.

It is compressive in nature in this case

free expansion is prevented partially
 free expansion = α tL

Expansion prevented Δ = α tL – δ
A steel rail is 12 m long and is laid at a temperature of
18°C. The maximum
temperature expected is 40°C.
(i) Estimate the minimum gap between two rails to be left
so that the temperature stresses do
not develop.
(ii) Calculate the temperature stresses developed in the
rails, if:
(a) No expansion joint is provided.
(b) If a 1.5 mm gap is provided for expansion.
(iii) If the stress developed is 20 N/mm2, what is the gap
provided between the rails?
Take E = 2 × 105 N/mm2 and α = 12 × 10–6/°C.
The temperature of a steel ring is raised through

150°C in order to fit it on a wooden wheel of 1.2 m

diameter. Find the original diameter of the steel ring

and also the stresses developed in the ring, when it

cools back to normal temperature. Assume Es = 2 ×

105 N/mm2 and αs = 12 × 10–6/°C.

The composite bar shown in Fig. is rigidly fixed at the
ends A and B. Determine the reaction developed at
ends when the temperature is raised by 18°C. Given

Ea = 70 kN/mm2
Es = 200 kN/mm2
αa = 11 × 10–6/°C
αs = 12 × 10–6/°C
The steel bar AB shown in Fig. varies linearly in
diameter from 25 mm to 50 mm in a length 500 mm.
It is held between two unyielding supports at room
temperature. What is the stress induced in the bar, if
temperature rises by 25°C?
Take Es = 2 × 105N/mm2 and
αs = 12 × 10–6/°C.
 THERMAL STRESSES IN COMPOUND BARS


 When temperature rises the two materials of the
compound bar experience different free expansion.
 Since they are prevented from seperating, the two bars
will have common position.
 This is possible only by extension of the bar which has
less free expansion and contraction of the bar which has
more free expansion.
Consider the compound bar shown in Fig. Let α1, α2 be
coefficient of thermal expansion and E1, E2 be moduli of
elasticity of the two materials respectively. If rise in temperature
is ‘t’,
Free expansion of bar 1 = α1 tL
Free expansion of bar 2 = α2 tL

Let α1 > α2. Hence the position of the two bars, if the free
expansions are permitted are at AA and BB as shown in Fig
Since the two bars are rigidly connected at the ends, the final
position of the end will be somewhere between AA and BB, say at
CC. It means Bar–1 will experience compressive force P1 which
contracts it by Δ1 and Bar–2 experience tensile force P2 which
will expand it by Δ2.
P1=P2=P (from equilibrium)
A bar of brass 20 mm is enclosed in a steel tube of 40
mm external diameter and 20 mm internal diameter. The
bar and the tubes are initially 1.2 m long and are rigidly
fastened at both ends using 20 mm diameter pins. If the
temperature is raised by 60°C, find the stresses induced
in the bar, tube and pins.
Es = 2 × 105 N/mm2
Eb = 1 × 105 N/mm2
αs = 11.6 × 10–6/°C
αb = 18.7 × 10–6/°C.
A compound bar is made of a steel plate 50 mm wide and
10 mm thick to which copper plates of size 40 mm wide
and 5 mm thick are connected rigidly on each side as
shown in Fig. The length of the bar at normal
temperature is 1 m. If the temperature is raised by 80°,
determine the stresses in each metal and the change in
length. Given αs =12 × 10–6/°C, αc = 17 × 10–6/°C, Es
= 2 × 105 N/mm2, Ec = 1 × 105– N/mm2.