SLIDES ON

VECTOR SPACES

1
Vector Spaces
 Vector spaces:
Let V be a set on which two operations (addition and scalar
multiplication) are defined. If the following ten axioms are
satisfied for every element u, v, and w in V and every scalar (real
number) c and d, then V is called a vector space, and the
elements in V are called vectors

Addition:
(1) u+v is in V
(2) u+v = v+u
(3) u+(v+w) = (u+v)+w
(4) V has a zero vector 0 such that for every u in V, u+0 = u
(5) For every u in V, there is a vector in V denoted by –u

10
such that u+(–u) = 0
Scalar multiplication:
(6) cu is inV
(7) c(u  v)  cu  cv
(8) (c  d)u  cu  du
(9) c(du)  (cd )u
(10) 1(u)  u

11
 Notes:
A vector space consists of four entities:
a set of vectors, a set of real-number scalars, and two operations

V: nonempty set
c: scalar
(u, v)  u  v : vector addition
(c,u)  cu : scalar multiplication
V , ,  is called a vector space

※ The set V together with the definitions of vector addition and scalar
multiplication satisfying the above ten axioms is called a vector space

12
 Four examples of vector spaces are introduced as follows. (It is
straightforward to show that these vector spaces satisfy the above ten axioms)
(1) n-tuple space: Rn
(u1,u2 , u n )  (v1, v2 , v 2 )  (u1  v1,u2  v2 , u n  vn )(standard vector
addition)

k(u1 ,u2 , u n )  (ku1, ku2 , ku n ) (standard scalar multiplication for vectors)

(2) Matrix space : V  M mn

(the set of all m×n matrices with real-number entries)
Ex: (m = n = 2)

u11 u12  v11 v12  u11  v11 u12  v12 

u u   v v   u  v u v  (standard matrix addition)
 21 22   21 22   21 21 22 22 
u11 u12  ku11 ku12 
k    (standard scalar multiplication for matrices)

13
u
 21 22   21
u ku ku22 
(3) n-th degree or less polynomial space : V  Pn
(the set of all real-valued polynomials of degree n or less)
p(x)  q(x)  (a0  b0 )  (a1  b1)x   (an  bn )x n (standard
addition)
polynomial

kp(x)  ka0  ka1x   kan x n (standard scalar multiplication for

polynomials)
※ By the fact that the set of real numbers is closed under addition and
multiplication, it is straightforward to show that Pn satisfies the ten
axioms and thus is a vector space
(4) Continuous function space : V  C(,)
(the set of all real-valued continuous functions defined on the
entire real line)
( f  g)(x)  f (x)  g(x) (standard addition for functions)
(kf )(x)  kf (x) (standard scalar multiplication for functions)

※ By the fact that the sum of two continuous function is continuous

and the product of a scalar and a continuous function is still a

14
continuous function, C(, ) is a vector space
  Summary of important vector spaces
R  set of all real numbers
R 2  set of all ordered pairs
R3  set of all ordered triples
R n  set of all n-tuples
C(, )  set of all continuous functions defined on the real number line
C[a, b]  set of all continuous functions defined on a closed interval [a, b]
P  set of all polynomials
Pn  set of all polynomials of degree  n
M m,n  set of m  n matrices
M n,n  set of n  n square matrices
※ The standard addition and scalar multiplication operations are considered if there is
no other specifications
※ Each element in a vector space is called a vector, so a vector can be a real number,

15
an n-tuple, a matrix, a polynomial, a continuous function, etc.
 Notes: To show that a set is not a vector space, you
need only find one axiom that is not satisfied
 Ex 2: The set of all integers is not a vector space
Pf:
1V , and 12 is a real-number scalar
( 12 )(1)  12 V (it is not closed under scalar multiplication)
  noninteger
scalar

integer

 Ex 3: The set of all (exact) second-degree polynomial functions is

not a vector space
Pf: Let p(x)  x 2 and q(x)  x 2  x 1
 p(x)  q(x)  x 1V
(it is not closed under vector addition)

16
 Ex 4:
V=R2=the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers
vector addition:(u1,u2 )  (v1,v2 )  (u1  v1,u2  v2 )
scalar multiplication:c(u1,u2 )  (cu1,0) (nonstandard definition)
Verify V is not a vector space
Sol:
This kind of setting can satisfy the first nine axioms of the
definition of a vector space (you can try to show that), but it
violates the tenth axiom

1(1,1)  (1, 0)  (1,1)

 the set (together with the two given operations) is
not a vector space

17
 2.3 Subspaces of Vector Spaces
 Subspace:
(V, ,) : a vector space
W  
W  V  : a nonempty subset ofV

(W , ,) : The nonempty subset W is called a subspace if W is

a vector space under the operations of addition and
scalar multiplication defined on V
 Trivial subspace:
Every vector space V has at least two subspaces
(1) Zero vector space {0} is a subspace of V (It satisfies the ten axioms
(2) V is a subspace of V

※ Any subspaces other than these two are called proper (or nontrivial) subspaces

20
  Examination of whether W being a subspace
– Since the operations defined on W are the same as those

defined on V, and most of the ten axioms are inherited

from the properties for operations, it is not needed to
verify these axioms
– Therefore, the following theorem tells us it is sufficientto

test for the closure conditions under vector addition and

scalar multiplication to identify that a nonempty subset of
a vector space is a subspace
 Theorem 2.4: Test whether a nonempty subset being a subspace
If W is a nonempty subset of a vector space V, then W is
a subspace of V if and only if the following conditions hold
(1) If u and v are in W, then u+v is in W

21
(2) If u is in W and c is any scalar, then cu is in W
 Ex 5: A subspace of M2×2
Let W be the set of all 2×2 symmetric matrices. Show that
W is a subspace of the vector space M2×2, with the standard
operations of matrix addition and scalar multiplication
Sol:
First, we knon that W , the set of all 2 2 symmetric matrices,
is an nonempty subset of the vector spaceM22
Second,
A W, A W  (A  A )T  AT  AT  A  A (A1  A2 W )
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

c  R, AW  (cA)T  cAT  cA (cAW )

The definition of a symmetric matrix A is that AT = A

23
Thus, Th. 2.4 is applied to obtain that W is a subspace of M2x2
 Ex 6: The set of singular matrices is not a subspace of M2×2
Let W be the set of singular (noninvertible) matrices of
order 2. Show that W is not a subspace of M2×2 with the
standard matrix operations

Sol:

1 0 0 0
A  W, B    W
0 0  0 1 

1 0 
A B     I W (W is not closed under vector addition)
0 1 

W is not a subspace of M22

24
 Ex 7: The set of first-quadrant vectors is not a subspace of R2
Show that W  {(x1, x2 ) : x1  0 and x2  0} , with the standard
operations, is not a subspace of R2

Sol:
Let u  (1, 1)W
1u  11,1 1, 1W
(W is not closed under scalar multiplication)

W is not a subspace of R2

25
 Ex 8: Identify subspaces of R2
Which of the following two subsets is a subspace of R2?
(a) The set of points on the line given by x+2y=0
(b) The set of points on the line given by x+2y=1
Sol:
(a) W  (x, y) x  2y  0 (2t,t) t  R (Note: the zero vector
(0,0) is on this line)

Let v1  2t1 ,t1 W and v 2  2t2 ,t2 W

v1  v 2  2 t1  t2 ,t1  t2 W (closed under vector addition)

cv1  2 ct1 , ct1 W (closed under scalar multiplication)

W is a subspace of R 2

26
 (b) W  x, y x  2 y  1 (Note: the zero vector (0, 0) is not on this line)

Consider v  (1,0) W
1v  1,0W W is not a subspace of R2

 Note: Subspaces of R2
(1) W consists of the single point 0  0, 0
(2) W consists of all points on a line passing through the origin
(3) R2

27
 Ex 9: Identify subspaces of R3
Which of the following subsets is a subspaceof R3?
(a) W  (x1 , x2 ,1) x1 , x2  R (Note: the zero vector is not in W)
(b) W  (x1 , x1  x3 , x3 ) x1 , x3  R (Note: the zero vector is in W)
Sol:
(a)

Consider v  (0, 0,1)W

(1)v  (0, 0, 1)W
W is not a subspace of R3

28
(b)

Consider v  (v1,v1  v3 , v3 ) W and u  (u1,u1  u3 ,u 3 ) W

v  u  v1  u1 , v1  u1  v3  u 3 ,v3  u3 W
cv  cv1 , cv1  cv3 , cv3 W
W is closed under vector addition and scalar multiplication,
so W is a subspace of R3

29
 Note: Subspaces of R3
(1) W consists of the single point 0  0,0,0
(2) W consists of all points on a line passing through the origin
(3) W consists of all points on a plane passing through the origin
(The W in problem (b) is a plane passing through theorigin)

(4) R3

※ According to Ex. 8 and Ex. 9, we can infer that if W is a subspace of a

vector space V, then both W and V must contain the same zero vector 0

30
 Linear Combination in a Vector Space
 Linear combination:
A vector u in a vector space V is called a linear combination of
the vectors v1 ,v 2 , ,v k in V if u can be written in the form

u  c1v1  c2 v 2   ck v k ,

where c1,c2 , , ck are real-number scalars

31
 Ex 10: Finding a linear combination
v1  (1,2,3) v2  (0,1,2) v3  (1,0,1)
Prove (a) w  (1,1,1) is a linear combination of v1, v2 , v3
(b) w  (1, 2,2) is not a linear combination of v1, v2 , v3
Sol:
(a) w  c1v1  c2 v2  c3v3

1,1,1 c1 1,2,3 c2 0,1,2 c3 1,0,1

 (c1  c3 , 2c1  c2 , 3c1  2c2  c3 )

c1  c3 1
 2c1  c2 1
3c1  2c2  c3 1

32
 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 
 2 1 0 1   0 1 2 1
G .-
 
3 2 1 1 
J. E.
0 0 0 0 

 c1  1 t , c2  1 2t , c3  t

(this system has infinitely many solutions)

t1
 w  2v1  3v2  v3
t2
 w  3v1  5v2  2v3

33
34