Aerodynamics

presented by:
Ahmad Hariri
Aerodynamics
 The purpose of this pilot briefing is to discuss
the simple and complex aerodynamics.
 Please use the following references:
 Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge
 Flight Theory for Pilots
Aerodynamics-Basics
 These fundamental basics first must be
acknowledged:
 Air is a fluid. It can be compressed &
expanded

 The atmosphere is composed of

 78% nitrogen
 21% oxygen
 1% other gasses

 Most of the oxygen is below 35,000 feet. (WHY?)

Aerodynamics-Basics
 Newton’s Laws of motion:
 Law 1 – A body at rest will remain at rest. A
body in motion will remain in motion
 Law 2 – F=MA Force is equal to mass times
acceleration
 Law 3 – For ever action there is an equal and
opposite reaction Low
Pressure

Bernoulli’s principle of Pressure:

An increase in the speed of
movement or flow will cause a
decrease in the fluid’s pressure.
- Example: the Venturi tube
Aerodynamics-Basics
 Bernoulli’s principle:

Air going over a wing. Notice the shape of a wing creates a

Venturi. Thus, the low pressure develops on top.
Aerodynamics-Basics
 Because air is a fluid, it utilizes the properties
of the Coanda effect: the tendency for a fluid
to follow the object along its flow path.

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AvLwqRC
bGKY

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S-SAQtO
DAQw
Aerodynamics - Stalls
 When does an airplane stall?
 When it exceeds the critical angle of attack.
What is angle of attack?
Angle of attack is the angle
between the chord line and the
relative wind

Chord line=the line

from the leading edge
of the wing to the
trailing edge

Relative
wind=perpendicular to
lift, relative to the airfoil
Aerodynamic-Stalls
 Stall speed vs. Ground speed

 An airplane will stall at the respected Indicated airspeed. It does

NOT matter what the groundspeed is!

 If you have a stiff enough headwind at altitude, on a given day,

you can stall an airplane with a negative groundspeed.

 Indicated airspeed is the speed read directly from the airspeed

indicator; it is the speed the plane thinks it is at.

 Groundspeed is the speed of travel over the ground. There is

minimal correlation with indicated airspeed; because
groundspeed is dependent upon outside wind velocities.
Aerodynamics-Stalls
 A stall occurs first at the wing root, then works out
toward the tip. This design characteristic is so that
you still maintain aileron control as long as possible.

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9eoboZNL9R8

 Stall speed refers to straight and level, 1G,

unaccelerated flight. Regardless of airspeed, the
plane will ALWAYS stall when the critical angle of
attack is exceeded.
 Aerodynamics-Stability
 “The balance of an airplane in flight depends,
therefore on the relative position of the center
of gravity (CG) and the center of pressure
(CP) of the airfoil” (PHAK 2-7).
What is center of pressure (CP)
Answer: CP is the point where the
resultant force crosses the chord
line. Because AOA changes,
pressure forces (positive and
negative) are constantly changing.
The resultant force is the total
positive and negative forces for
each angle of attack
 Aerodynamics-Stability
 Therefore, if AOA increases, CP moves
forward. If AOA decreases, CP moves aft.
As the CG and CP get closer, the
The CG is usually forward of the CP.
aircraft becomes less stable. The
Rotations around the different axis
farther apart they are, the more stable
(lateral, longitudinal, and vertical),
the aircraft is.
occur around the CG.

Because CP is located aft of the CG,

the aircraft wants to tumble forward, as it
rotates around the CG. Hence, the
horizontal stabilizer, counteracting the
flipping rotation by creating downward
lift.
Aerodynamics-Stability
 Stability=the tendency to correct back to the original
state
 Maneuverability=the ability to change attitude and
withstand stresses
 Controllability=the aircraft’s response to pilot imputs

 Types of Stability: Static & Dynamic

 Static- the aircraft’s initial response

 Dynamic-the response over a period of time
Aerodynamics-Stability
 Static Stability (initial tendency)
 Positive Static=immediately return to the original state
 Neutral Static=remain in the new position
 Negative Static=continue away from the original state

Dynamic Stability (over time)

-Positive Dynamic=returns to original state
-Neutral Dynamic-Once displaced, the plane neither
increases or decreases in amplitude, stays the same
-Negative Dynamic=continues going away, becomes
more divergent if displaced
Aerodynamics-Stability
 Static Stability:
Aerodynamics-Stability
 Dynamic Stability:
Aerodynamics-Stability
Phugoid Oscillations- Result from the worse type
of stability (Positive static, neutral dynamic). They
are long oscillations, and very slow. Phugoid
oscillations occur with a close CG and CP
(inherently unstable).
Phugoid

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kh
_I25FmOrI

Above is a video of a case study done

on Japan Airlines flight 123.
-Caution- Long video
Aerodynamics-Stability
 Dihedral- This is the angle that exists
between the wings and the fuselage. Dihedral
affects longitudinal stability
 Yaw stability-developed from the vertical
stabilizer
Longitudinal stability-roll
Vertical stability-yaw
Lateral stability-pitch
*Through the CG*
Aerodynamics
Definition of Camber - curvature of the wing
Adverse Yaw – You change
the camber of the wing with
the ailerons when executing
a turn. The upward wing has
more lift than the lower wing.
In adverse yaw, the aircraft
tends to slip towards the
upward wing due to the
difference in lift. An increase
in lift results in an increase
in drag. Therefore more
drag on the upward wing
causes the shift/twist around
the vertical axis resulting in This demonstrates the need for a rudder.
an uncontrolled turn.
Aerodynamics-CG
 Center of Gravity (CG) is the center point where all
the weight acts through.

 “The center of gravity is a point at which an airplane

would balance if it were suspended at that point…
The center of gravity is not necessarily a fixed point;
its location depends on the distribution of weight in
the airplane.” (PHAK 8-2).

 Longitudinal unbalance = too forward CG (nose

heavy) or too aft CG (tail heavy)
Aerodynamics-CG
 What is the CG range in a Piper Archer?
 Answer: 82”-93” aft of datum.

 Datum is right at the tip of the nose of the

plane. The datum is established by airplane
designers. Really, the Archer only has about
11 inches for CG adjustment.

Where is that located with

reference to you sitting in the
pilot seat?
Answer: right below your feet
Aerodynamics-CG
 Characteristics of an aft CG:
 Decreased stability – Because when the CG
moves rearward, it causes an increase in
AOA.
 More difficult to recover from stalls and spins.
 Easy to overstress the airplane – due to “very
light control forces” (PHAK 8-2).
Aerodynamics-CG
 Characteristics of a forward CG:
 Increased stall speed – Because the critical
angle of attack is reached at a higher speed
due to an increased wing loading.
 Increased cruise speed – Due to decreased
drag because of a decreased AOA from the
nose down pitch tendency.
 Difficulty in takeoff – Struggles to raise the
nose with in a nose-heavy situation.
 Difficulty in the flare – Hard to raise the nose
in the flare.
Aerodynamics-Load Factor
 Definition: “Any force applied to an airplane to deflect
its flight from a straight line produces a stress on its
structure; the amount of this force is termed load
factor” (PHAK 3-26).

 It’s a ratio of total airload : gross weight

 Load factor is defined in G’s.

 Example: the ratio = 3:1 therefore the load factor is 3,

and you are producing 3’Gs.
Aerodynamics-Load Factor
 Why is load factor important:

“Dangerous overload that

is possible for a pilot to
impose on structures”
(PHAK 3-26)

“Increased load factor

increases the stalling
speed and makes stalls
possible at seemingly safe
flight speeds” (PHAK 3-26)
Aerodynamics-Load Factor
 What is the load factor in a 60 degree steep
turn?
 Answer: 2Gs
What will I weigh in this type
of steep turn if I weigh 150lbs
in 1G flight?
Answer: 300lbs
Aerodynamics-Load Factor
Load Factor and stall speed are proportional. The load factor squares as
the stalling speed doubles.

Therefore, in a Piper archer with a stall speed of 50 in 1G, unaccelerated

flight, what would the stall speed be in a 2G steep turn?
Answer: Approximately 73 kts
Aerodynamics-Va
 What is maneuvering speed?
 Practically, it is the speed that you slow to in
the event of turbulent situations.

 Why is VA (maneuvering speed) a range?

What affects it?
 Answer: weight affects maneuvering speed. The
heavier the plane is, the higher your maneuvering
speed should be (113). If you are lighter, Va
should be lower (89).
Aerodynamics-Va
 How to calculate Va for any given flight:
 Va = 113 * Sqrt (Current Weight/2550)
 Example: You weigh 2200lbs
 Va = 113 * Square root (2200/2550)
 Va = 113 * Square root (.88)
 Va = 113 * .938 Definition of Va:
“At any speed below this
 Va = 106 speed the aircraft cannot
be overstressed. It will stall
befor eth elimit load factor
is reached. Above this
speed, however, the
aircraft can exceed the limit
load factor before it stalls.
Aerodynamics-Drag
 There are two main types of drag:
 Induced
 Parasitic:
 Form drag

 Skin friction

 Interference drag

 Definition of induced drag: This type of drag is based

upon efficiency. Because no machine is 100%
efficient, induced drag exists. With an increase in
efficiency, there will be a decrease in induced drag.
 It is the drag due to lift.

 * Drag is defined in pounds *

Aerodynamics-Drag
 Parasitic Drag types:
 Form Drag: Due to the shape of an aircraft,
form drag is a result of airflow going around it.
– Consider a flat plate vs. a sphere when
being thrown –
 Interference Drag: This occurs a the
intersection of air currents. For example, the
wing root connected to the fuselage.
 Skin friction: This drag is the aerodynamic
resistance from the contact of air with the
surface of the airplane.
Aerodynamics-Drag
 What are wingtip vortices?
 This is the wake that is generated from the
wingtips. They are counter-rotating vortices
that are caused from air spilling over the end
of the wing.
 “This pressure differential triggers the rollup of
the airflow aft of the wing resulting in swirling air
masses trailing downstream of the wingtips”
(PHAK 12-13).
 The pressure difference the PHAK is referencing is
the Low pressure above the wing, countered with a
High pressure below the wing.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E1ESmvyAmOs
Aerodynamics-Drag

Always land beyond an aircraft generating significant wingtip vortices.

Rotate prior to their rotation point. ALWAYS give yourself plenty of
time to avoid them. Remember to sidestep upwind.

Problem: Have you ever seen a Piper Archer out climb a 727?
Probably Not. So, what good will it do to rotate prior to their rotation
point if you can’t remain high above their climb out path? You will
eventually fly through them. Time will solve this problem so that they
can dissipate.
Aerodynamics-Drag
 Imagine an infinite wing…would it have
wingtip vortices?
 Answer: No. This is because an infinite wing
would not have wingtips, therefore it would not
develop wingtip vortices.

 Wingtips generate induced drag. Therefore if

an infinite wing does not have wingtips, it
would not generate induced drag.
Aerodynamics-Drag
 Ground effect- “Fly an airplane just clear of
the ground (or water) at a slightly slower
airspeed than that required to sustain level
flight at higher altitudes” (PHAK 3-7)
 Ground effect alters:
Ground effect is a reduction of
 Upwash
induced drag
 Downwash
 Wingtip vorticies
Aerodynamics-Drag
“On entering ground effect:
1. Induced drag is decreased
2. Nose-down pitching moments occur
3.The airspeed indicator reads low

Upon leaving ground effect:

1. Induced drag is increased
2. Nose-up pitching moments occur
3The airspeed will read higher (correctly)”

Page 72 Flight Theory for Pilots

Aerodynamics-Drag

According to the diagram, in ground effect, less thrust is required to

maintain any given velocity, compared with the thrust required out of
ground effect
“Therefore, the wing will require a lower angle of attack in ground effect
to produce the same lift coefficient or, if a constant angle of attack is
maintained, an increase in lift coefficient will result” (PHAK 3-7).
Aerodynamics-Airspeed
 There are different types of airspeed:
 Indicated
 Calibrated
 Equivalent
 True
Aerodynamics-Airspeed
 Indicated airspeed - simply the airspeed that is read
off the airspeed indicator. The raw speed.

 Calibrated airspeed – The airspeed corrected for

instrument and position error. Errors occur from
limitations where the pitot tube is located, or even
where the static port is placed.

 Equivalent airspeed – The airspeed after it is

calibrated for compressibility For the Piper Archer,
compressibility is not a factor due to the slow speeds it
cruises at. It becomes an issue above 250kts.

 True airspeed – The final airspeed that we calculate

flight planning at.
Aerodynamics-Airspeed

Callibrated can be either higher

or lower than indicated.

Equillivant is always lower than

Callibrated.
It is easy to remember with the
acronym: ICE T (like Ice Tea) True is always higher than
equilivant.
And with the square root symbol
Aerodynamics-Boundary Layer
 The boundary layer is located a few
millimeters above the surface of the airfoil, at
the microscopic level.

 Within the boundary layer airflow decreases

in velocity; it slows going over the wing due
to surface friction.

 Interference occurs with the wing and the air

flowing around it.
Aerodynamics-Boundary Layer

At the surface, the velocity of the air

The farther away from the equals 0.
surface of the airfoil, the As the distance increases above the
higher the velocity of the airfoil, the velocity increases, until it is
airflow is. equivalent to free stream velocity.
Aerodynamics-Boundary Layer
 There are two types of airflow going over a wing:
 Laminar – Smooth, constant, uninterrupted airflow
 Turbulent – Rough, bumpy airflow

 As you move farther back on the wing, the boundary

layer becomes thicker. This causes unstable airflow
(turbulent air).

 Therefore, the airflow separates with the surface, due

to the increased boundary layer and decreased
velocity of airflow.
Aerodynamics-Boundary Layer

Airflow over a smooth ball

flying through the air

Separation exists, and at the

rear, airflow is not going over
the surface.
Aerodynamics-Boundary Layer
 It is bad for airflow to separate when going
over an airfoil. Recall Bernoulli's principle:
When air travels over the surface of a wing, it
creates lift.

 If there is no airflow going over a wing, no lift

will be produced.
Aerodynamics-Boundary Layer
 This is why turbulent airflow is important.

 If the surface of the airfoil is disrupted (example

rivets), it will create turbulent airflow.

 Turbulent airflow will continue to stick to the surface,

thus allowing lift to be produced.

 Turbulent airflow is better than no airflow at all!

 Aerodynamics-Boundary Layer

Consider a golf ball. It was developed with indents (dimples). Thus, it creates
turbulent air, allowing the airflow to stick to the airfoil longer than if it were
developed with a smooth surface.
End of Module