TIMBER

BUILDING MATERIALS
AR. SHREE LALITHA
 WOOD AS A CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

•Wood has been used as a building material for

thousands of years, being second only to stone in terms
of its rich and storied history in the world of
construction.
• The chemical properties of wood are inherently
complex, but even in spite of this challenge, human
beings have successfully harnessed the unique
characteristics of wood to build a seemingly unlimited
variety of structures.
•This exceptionally versatile material is commonly used
to build houses, shelters and boats, but it is also
extensively used in the furniture and home decor
industry as well.
 ADVANTAGES OF USING WOOD

One of the biggest advantages of using

wood as a building material is that it is a
natural resource, making it readily
available and economically feasible.
 It is remarkably strong in relation to its
weight, and it provides good insulation
from the cold. Wood is highly machinable,
and can be fabricated into all kinds of
shapes and sizes to fit practically any
construction need.
 Wood is also the perfect example of an
environmentally sustainable product; it is
biodegradable and renewable, and carries
the lowest carbon footprint of any
comparable building material.
 In addition, no high-energy fossil fuels
are required to produce wood, unlike other
common building materials such as
brick, steel or plastic.
 LUMBER OR TIMBER

The words "lumber" and "timber" are often used interchangeably to refer to wood
used in construction work, but there has been considerable debate as to which term
should apply in a given scenario.
 Pieces of wood that are smaller than 5 inches wide by 5 inches thick (regardless of
length) are generally referred to as lumber. These pieces are machine-planed and
sawn to fit certain dimensional specifications (e.g., 2x4", 2x8", etc.) and are primarily
used in residential construction. Pieces of wood over 5 inches wide by 5 inches thick
(regardless of length) are referred to as timber, and any timber pieces that exceed 8"
wide by 8" thick are referred to as beams.
 As timber pieces are larger in dimension, they are often used to construct the
frames of large structures such as buildings and bridges. Timber is also commonly
utilized in large quantities for railroad ties, mine shaft supports and crossbeams on
utility poles.
ENGINEERED WOOD

Another type of wood commonly used in

construction is known as engineered wood. As its
name implies, engineered wood is the product of
a more intricate fabrication process in which
various wood strands, fibers, veneers, or other
forms of wood are glued together to form a type
of composite material that is used for specific
construction applications.
Common examples of engineered wood
include plywood, glued laminated timber (a.k.a.
"glulam"), oriented strand board, fiberboard, and
particle board.
 Engineered wood products are commonly
used in a wide variety of residential, commercial
and industrial construction projects.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TIMBER

The terms timber and wood are often used

synonymously, but they have distinct meaning
in the building industry. Wood is the
hard,fibrous material that makes up the tree
under the bark, Whereas timber may be
defined as a wood which retains its natural
physical structure and chemical composition
and is suitable for various engineering works.

ON THE BASIS OF ITS POSTION

1. Standing timber implies a living tree.
2. Rough timber forms a part of the felled
tree.
3. Converted timber or Lumber are long of
timber sawn into planks,posts,etc.
TIMBER BASED ON GRADING
ON THE BASIS OF ITS GRADING
All grading specifications are clearly distinguished between structural
or stress grading, and commercial or utility grading based on Indian
Standard classification.
 Structural grading is also known as stress grading. However , there
is a small distinction between the two . Structural grading refers to
the principle by which the material is graded on the basic of visible
defects which have known effects on the strength properties of the
material . Stress grading refers to the principle by which the
material is graded by consideration of structural grading is further
divided as:
 [Link] based on known effect of defect and estimating
accumulative value.
 [Link] grading.
 Commercial grading also known as yard grading or utility grading
refers to the principle by which the material is graded by
consideration of usefulness of the material and price factors.
 Commercial grading is further divided in the following classes:
 Grade A:This classification is based on dimensions and general
appearance . The dimensions of lengths , widths and thicknesses of
converted materials are measured . This system is prevalent is
Kerala and Mysore.
• Grade B:This classification is based on the best ultimate use of
the material . Such a system is mostly in Andhra Pradesh and
some parts of Tamil Nadu . Here , each grade is further divided
into A,B and C classes to indicate occurrence of defect. Only two
lengths are recognized , long(L) which is 5m and above , and
short(S) that is under [Link] log is stamped such as BAL(Beam,
A-class, long),PBS( Plank,B-class,short),etc. Some times another
letter is also added indicating the species e.g .T for teak.
• Grade C:This classification is based on qualitative evaluation of
defects and rough estimate of out-turn of utilizable material. It is
prevalent in Madhya Pradesh.
• Grade D:This classification is based on evaluation of units of
defect and fixing the permissible number of standard volume of
area or the material in each grade. This system is prevalent in
number of standard volume of area or the material in each
grade. This system is prevalent in Bombay region and is
increasingly adopted in Indian Standards and is recognized
internationally.
 TYPES OF TIMBER
•Hardwoods are mainly used for flooring, decking and timber furniture, while
softwoods are used for framework and cladding.
•There are timbers for all budgets — ash, oak, teak and walnut are usually the
most expensive, while softwoods are more economical.
•timber's resistance to termites and decay.
•Correct timber for the project.

In broad timber terms, there are two different categories of woods —

softwood and hardwood.
 Softwood comes from coniferous species such as cedar, fir and pine. They
grow quickly and the wood is lighter, has coarser grain and is not as strong
as most hardwoods.
While in general softwoods are considered inferior to hardwoods for many
purposes, they do have their place in the woodworking world for specific jobs
— and because they grow quickly they are very economical. In building, they
are commonly used for the framework of houses and areas such as lining
boards and cladding.
 Hardwoods by comparison are heavy, strong and stable. They are used
predominantly for piers, flooring, decking and in most timber furniture.
Types of timber

EUCALYPTUS
The most common species in Australia is eucalyptus.
Within the species there are a huge variety of sub-
species that have vary different properties, including
colour and grain patterns. Common ones include
Tasmanian Oak (cream), blackbutt (pale brown),
spotted gum (mid brown) and Jarrah (red). Prices vary
from inexpensive to moderately expensive.

CEDAR
The most common type of cedar is western red. As
this name implies, it is pinky, red in colour. It is
relatively soft but straight grained and is mostly used
for outdoors for furniture, deck handrails, wall
cladding and window frames because it resists rotting
in moist environments. Relatively inexpensive.
 FIR
This reddish brown wood is imported from North America.
While fairly soft, it has straight grain and a high strength-
to-weight ratio (moderate strength, low weight) and is a
popular choice as a rafter material in Australia. Moderately
inexpensive.

 PINE
Pine comes in several varieties, but the main ones found in
Australia are Radiata, Cypress and Hoop pine. Radiata pine
is a very common house-framing timber but it has low
resistance to decay and termites unless chemically treated.
Cypress pine is prized for its anti-termite properties, which
made it a popular flooring material in Australia for
decades. Hoop pine is used mainly for plywood.
Inexpensive.

 ASH
Ash is a white-to-pale brown-coloured wood with a
straight, attractive grain. Easy to work, it is commonly used
in furniture production where it is a good substitute for
white oak.
 BIRCH
Birch comes in two varieties — yellow and white. Very
common in Russia and Nordic countries, birch is a fairly
hard timber used for furniture and plywood. It is one of
the most economical hardwoods and is used extensively
by Swedish giant Ikea and by Alvar Aalto’s Finish furniture
company Artek.

 MAHOGANY
One of the great furniture woods, mahogany is reddish-
brown-to-deep red in color. While very common in
antique furniture, it is not common today as it is not
sustainably grown. It has a straight grain and is of
medium hardness, so it's easy for joiners to work.

 BEECH
A white pale to brown wood timber, beech is native to
Sweden, Denmark and Norway, where it is used for
everything from firewood to furniture and flooring. Due
to its fairly bland grain, beech is often used for furniture
which is designed to be painted rather than using more
expensive oak or ash.
 MAPLE
Available in two varieties — hard and soft. Hard
maple, commonly referred to as Rock Maple in
Australia, is an extremely hard and pale-colored
timber, making it the wood of choice for
gymnasium floors. Soft maple is lighter in weight
and is used mostly in making boxes and pallets
because of wide color variations.

 OAK
Used for centuries throughout Europe, particularly
in England, oak is still one of the most sought-after
woods for furniture. Available in red and white, the
latter is preferred because it has a more attractive
figure than American red oak and is resistant to
moisture, which allows it to be used for outdoor
furniture. English oak is regarded as superior to
American white oak.
 TEAK
Teak is a tropical timber native to Burma, Thailand
and Bangladesh. There are many ethical reasons
not to use teak unless it is either recycled or from
plantation sources. Used extensively on boats and
in outdoor furniture, teak has a slightly waxy feel
and a golden-brown color. Slow-grown teak is
probably the best timber there is to resist sun and
rain, but it is now very expensive.

 WALNUT
An American hardwood, Walnut has an attractive
rich brown color and a beautiful grain.
Unfortunately, now fairly expensive and usually
only available in fairly narrow boards, it is used
extensively in furniture making, and as a veneered
board for cabinetry and feature walls.
Properties of timber

The quality of timber must be ensured before using it for a purpose. The quality can be
ensured by investigating the properties of timber. Both physical and mechanical
properties of timber which affects timber quality.

Following are the physical and mechanical properties of timber:

 Colour
 Appearance
 Hardness
 Specific Gravity
 Moisture Content
 Grain
 Shrinkage and Swelling
 Strength
 Density
 Toughness
 Elasticity
 Warping
 Durability
 Defectless
 Workability
 Soundness
 Free of abrasion
Colour
Color is a uniform property by which most trees are
characterized as they show variation from tree to tree. Light
color indicates weak timber. For example, freshly cut teak,
Deodar, and Walnut have a golden yellow, whitish and dark
brown shades respectively.

Appearance
Smell is a good property as timbers for few plants as they
can be identified by their characteristic aroma. Fresh cut
timbers have a good smell. For example resinous smell from
pine.

Hardness
For the resistance of any kind of damage, hardness is an
obvious property.

Specific Gravity
Variation of timber in specific gravity (0.3-0.9) is found. It
depends on pores present inside timber. The specific gravity
of this light material is less than that of water (<1). But in
case of compact wood where pores are almost absent and
become heavier, their specific gravity increases up to 1.5.
Moisture Content
Timbers are hygroscopic and gain water from nature (atmosphere).
The absorption of water or dehydration depends on atmospheric
humidity. If timbers moisture content is high that means the
timber quality is low. Water content is the risk of fungal attack.

Grain
Several types of grain arrangement found. On the grain structure
quality of timber varies. Grains remain closely related.

Straight grain: Arrangement of vascular tissue (xylem and phloem)

is important which grow parallel to the length of the timber that is
termed as straight grain.
Coarse grain: as straight grain.
vascular tissue and fibre arranged broadly and widely.
Interlocked grain: Instead of parallel arrangement twisted, a spiral
arrangement may be found.
Shrinkage and Swelling
The percentage of shrinkage and swelling varies from plant to
plant. Some give higher percentage after drying. Shrinkage starts
when cell walls of timber start to release water. In moisture
atmosphere timber swells when cell walls absorb water. Good
quality timbers swell less. Timbers having thicker wall swell more
than a thinner one.
Strength
Best quality timbers have the highest strength. Strength means capable to bear
loads. Anisotropic material like timber has different structure at the different
portion. So, the strength of timber is different at different points. Grain structure
determines the strength of the timber. Some types of strength are
[Link] strength: 500 kg/cm2 to 700 kg/cm2 load is enough to test
timbers strength.
[Link] strength: When timber is strong enough to resist the tensile force. If
perpendicular force is made then timber is weaker. 500-2000 kg/cm2 is the
range of tensile strength load.
[Link] strength: Enough bending strength indicates good quality timber.
Density
Timber having higher density have a thicker wall.
Presence of defects: There may be some of the natural and artificial defects in
timber such as cross-grain, knots, and shakes, etc. All of them cause a
decrease in the strength of the timber.
Toughness
Timber has to have the capability to bear shocks, jerk. Anti-bending and anti
splitting characteristic is needed. Old timbers have annual rings which indicate
their age is a good indicator.
Elasticity
Another property elasticity means timber should attain its own shape
after use. Because of this quality, it is used in sports bat.
Warping
Environmental change with season can’t effect good quality timber.
Durability
A good quality timber has the property to resist the attack and infection
of fungus or other insects. This resistance quality makes timber better.
Defectless
This property is gained if the timber is from a sound tree. A defectless
tree is free from sap, shakes, and dead knots.
Workability
A good timber is always easy to work on it. Easy to drag using saw on
good timber. The finishing can be done well.
Soundness
A good quality timber gives good sound.
Texture
The texture of good timber is fine and even.
Free of Abrasion
Timber should not be damaged by the external environment. It has to
gain the ability to protect its skin.
 DEFECTS IN TIMBER
The followings are the five main types of
defects in timber:
Defects due to Natural Forces
Defects due to Attack by Insects
Defects due to Fungi
Defects due to Defective Seasoning
Defects due to Defective Conversion

Defects in Timber due to Natural Forces

1. Knots: Knots are the most common defects caused due to
natural forces. During the growth of a tree, branches close
to the ground or lower branches die. Bases of those
branches remain in the tree as the trees grow. These bases
may create imperfection known as knots.

Types of Knots: Knots are of two types.

Dead knots: The remains of damaged branches after drying
out they become loose and fall out.
Live knots: They are sound and firm. If small, are not great
of a defect.
Live knots are usually not a problem as they remain firmly attached to the timber.
But in dead knots, they are loosely attached and reduce strength. Knots decrease the
strength of the wood and thus lower its value for structural uses. Knots cause serious
defects when the load is perpendicular to the grains.

[Link]: Twist in timber rotates the ends of the

timber in opposite directions. The main reason
behind this defect is twisting of the trees by
the strong wind.

[Link]: Shakes are timber defects that occur

around the annual ring or growth ring of a
timber. In other words, cracks or splits in the
woods are called shakes.
Shakes
It may or may not be a structural problem
depending upon depth and use. The main
problem is aesthetics. Where the appearance
is important, shakes are undesirable.
Types of shakes

Star Shakes: This type of shake starts propagating from the bark towards the sapwood
and sometimes even towards the heartwood along the lines of medullary rays. Cracks
are wider on the outer edge or bark and narrower on the inside (usually sapwood,
sometimes heartwood). The main reasons behind star shakes are extreme heat or
frosting during the growth of the trees and rapid or uneven seasoning after cutting off
the timber. Extreme heat or frost causes temperature difference, which causes
shrinkage leading to the crack.

Cup and/or Ring Shakes: Cup shakes follow the annual growth ring. It is capable to
separate the growth ring partially or completely. When the crack separates the annual
ring completely, it is called ring shakes. So, all ring shakes are cup shakes, but all cup
shakes are not a ring shape. Excessive frost action is the main reason for this type of
crack.
Heart Shakes: Unlike star shakes, heart shakes starts propagating from the pith to the
sapwood along the lines of medullary rays. Shrinkage of the interior part of the timber
causes this crack.
Rind Galls: The meaning of rind is bark and gall is
abnormal growth. So abnormal growth of the bark
of the trees is called rind galls. Improper cutting of
branches causes this abnormal growth. Wood from
this portion of the timber lacks strength and
desirable structure.
Upsets: Upsets in various wood indicate that the Rind Galls
tree was subjected to crushing or compression.
Improper felling of trees, heavy wind blowing during
the young age of the tree these are the main
reasons behind this type of defect.

Defects of Timber due to Attack by Insects

Insects like beetles, termites or marine boars eat wood, make holes and weaken the
strength of the wood.
Beetles are small insects that make holes in almost all the sapwoods. The larvae make
tunnels through the sapwood in all directions and turn wood into powder.
Termites live in a colony. They are very fast in eating woods and making tunnels
through it. Only a few good kinds of wood can withstand the action of termites.
Marine boars are found in salt water. Usually, they make tunnels in wood to take refuge
or shelter. All kinds of wood or timber are vulnerable to this kind of insect.
 Defects in Timber due to Attack by Fungi

[Link]: When fungi feed only on

sapwood, where the food materials are
stored, it causes a stain. Heartwood
doesn’t contain these kinds of food
materials and is not affected by it. Stain
action causes color but does not affect
the strength of the wood.

Termite infestation in wood [Link]: wood eating or wood

destroying fungus is responsible for this
type of defect in wood. This type of fungi
breaks down the cell structure. Both
sapwood and heartwood are affected by
them. Considerable strength reduction
occurs.

Decay due to fungi

Defect in Timber due to Defective Seasoning
Faulty method of seasoning causes serious defects in woods. During seasoning of
timber, exterior or surface layer of the timber dries before the interior surface. So,
stress is developed due to the difference in shrinkage. In a perfect seasoning
process, stress is kept minimum by controlling the shrinkage. Some of the defects
resulting from defective seasoning are as follows:-
a. Bow: Curvature formed in direction of the length of the timber is called bow.
[Link]: Curvature formed in the transverse direction of the timber is called a cup.
[Link]: Check is a kind of crack that separates fibers, but it doesn’t extend from
one end to another.
[Link]: Split is a special type of check that extends from one end to another.
[Link] Combing: Stress is developed in the heartwood during the drying process
or seasoning. For these stresses, cracks are created in the form of honeycomb
texture.
Defects of Timber due to Defective Conversion

[Link] Heart: This term is

applied to the timber, which is
sawn in a way that the pith or
the center heart falls entirely
within the surface throughout
its length.
[Link] Burnt: Overheating
is the main reason for this
defect.
[Link] Notches: defective
holding and pulling causes this
defect.
[Link]: erroneous cutting or
sawing of wood causes this
defect. Lack of experience in
sawing and carelessness is the
main reason for erroneous
cutting.
[Link] Grain: Mismatch
in grain alignment.
SEASONING OF TIMBER
Seasoning of timber is the process by which moisture content in the
timber is reduced to required level. By reducing moisture content, the
strength, elasticity and durability properties are developed. A well-
seasoned timber has 15% moisture content in it.

METHODS OF SEASONING TIMBER

There are two methods of Seasoning of timber which are
explained below
1. Natural seasoning
2. Artificial seasoning
Natural Seasoning of Timber
Natural seasoning is the process in which timber is
seasoned by subjecting it to the natural elements such as
air or water. Natural seasoning may be water seasoning
or air seasoning.
Water Seasoning
Water seasoning is the process in which timber is
immersed in water flow which helps to remove the sap
present in the timber. It will take 2 to 4 weeks of time and
after that the timber is allowed to dry. Well-seasoned
timber is ready to use.
Air Seasoning
 In the process of air seasoning timber logs are arranged in layers in a shed.
 The arrangement is done by maintaining some gap with the ground. So, platform is built
on ground at 300mm height from ground.
 The logs are arranged in such a way that air is circulated freely between logs.
 By the movement of air, the moisture content in timber slowly reduces and seasoning
occurs. Even though it is a slow process it will produce well-seasoned timber.

Artificial Seasoning of Timber

Natural seasoning gives good results but takes more time. So, artificial seasoning of timber is
developed nowadays. By artificial seasoning, timber is seasoned with in 4-5 days. Here also
different methods of artificial seasoning are there and they are as follows.

1. Seasoning by Boiling
2. Chemical seasoning
3. Kiln seasoning
4. Electrical seasoning
Seasoning by Boiling
Seasoning of timber is also achieved by boiling it in water for
3 to 4 hours.
After boiling timber is allowed to drying. For large quantity
of timber boiling is difficult so, sometimes hot steam is
passed through timber logs in enclosed room.
It also gives good results. The boiling or steaming process
develops the strength and elasticity of timber but
economically it is of heavier cost.
Chemical Seasoning
In case of chemical seasoning, timber is stored in suitable salt
solution for some time. The salt solution used has the
tendency to absorb water from the timber. So, the moisture
content is removed and then timber is allowed to drying. It
affects the strength of the timber.
Kiln Seasoning
In this method timber is subjected to hot air in air tight
chamber. The hot air circulates in between the timber logs and
reduces the moisture content. The temperature inside the
chamber is raised with the help of heating coils. When the
required temperature is obtained moisture content and
relative humidity gets reduced and timber gets seasoned. Even
though it is costly process it will give good results strength
wise.
Electrical Seasoning
 In the method of electrical seasoning timber is
subjected to high frequency alternating currents.
 The resistance of timber against electricity is measured
at every interval of time. Electrical Seasoning of
Timber, When the required resistance is reached
seasoning, process is stopped because resistance of
timber increases by reducing moisture content in it.
 It is also called as rapid seasoning and it is
uneconomical.
Preservation of timber is carried out to increase the life of timber. Preservation is
done using different types of preservatives. Methods and different materials used
for preservation of timber is discussed.
Increasing life makes timber more durable and it can be used for longer periods.
Preservation also helps the timber to get rid of insects and fungi etc
Properties of Good Preservative for Timber
The preservative used to protect the timber should contain following
requirements or properties.
It should be effortlessly and cheaply available.
It should not contain any harmful substances, gases etc.
It should cover larger area with small quantity. Hence, it should be economical.
Decorative treatment or any surface treatment should be allowed on timber
after the application of preservative.
Strength of timber should not be affected by the preservative.
It should not contain any unpleasant smell.
It should not get affected by light, heat, water etc.
It should not get affected by fungi, insects etc. and should also efficient to kill
them.
It should not generate flame when contacts with fire.
It should not corrode metals when it makes a contact with them.
The depth of penetration of preservative in wood fibers should be minimum
6mm to 25mm.
Different Types of Preservatives for Timber
Coal tar
ASCU
Chemical slats
Oil paints
Solignum paints
Creosote oil
Coal Tar for Preservation of Timber
Coal tar is heated and obtained liquid hot tar is applied
on timber surface using brush. Coal tar contains
unpleasant smell and does not allow paint on it.
So, it is used for door frames, window frames etc. It is
very cheap and has good fire resistance.
ASCU Preservative for Timber
ASCU is a special preservative which is available in powder
form. It is dissolved in water to get preservative solution.
It should be added 6 parts by weight of ASCU in 100 parts by
weight of water. The final solution is applied on timber by
spraying. This solution does not contain any odor. It is useful
mainly to get rid of from white ants.
ASCU contains hydrated arsenic pent oxide,
copper sulphate or blue vitriol and sodium
dichromate or potassium dichromate in it. After
applying ASCU, the timber can be coated with
paint, varnished etc.
Chemical Slats for Preservation of Timber
Chemical salts like copper sulphate, mercury chloride
and zinc chloride are used as preservative which can
be dissolved in water to get liquid solution. They are
odorless and do not generate flames when contact
with fire
Oil Paints Preservatives for Timber
Oil paints are suitable for well-seasoned wood. They are
generally applied in 2 or 3 coats. Oil paints prevents
timber from moisture. If timber is not seasoned, then oil
paints may lead to decay of timber by confining sap.

Solignum Paints for Preservation of Timber

Solignum paints are applied in hot condition using brush.
They are well suitable for preserving timber from white
ants. Solignum paints can be used by adding color
pigments so, the timber has good appearance.
Creosote Oil for Preservation of Timber
Creosote oil is prepared by the distillation of tar. It is black or
brown in color. It contains unpleasant smell. It is applied in a
special manner.
Firstly, the timber is well seasoned and dried. Then, it is
placed in airtight chamber and inside air is pumped out.
Finally creosote oil is pumped into the chamber with high
pressure about 0.7 to 1 N/mm2 at a temperature of 50oC.
After allowing it for 2 hours, the timber absorbs creosote oil
sufficiently and taken out from the chamber.
Creosote oil is flammable so, it is not used for timber works in
fireplaces. It is generally used for wood piles, poles, railway
sleepers etc.

Methods of Timber Preservation

Brushing
Spraying
Injecting under pressure
Dipping and stepping
Charring
Hot and cold open tank treatment
Conservation of Timber