Orthographic Sketching

The term orthographic is derived from two Greek words, orthos and graphos.
Orthos means the write and graphos means the draw. In other words, it describes a
type of drawing represented only by lines, without shading or rendering. The lines in
orthographic drawing are so simple to make that it seems the drafts man is only writing
them.
Orthographic drawing is a special type of drawing which may not be pleasing
to the eyes, but it is easier to understand than other types of drawing after one develops
skills in reading and interpreting it. To put it another way, the term refers to the representation
of the exact shape of an object in two or more views as they are seen perpendicularly from
its surfaces. For instance, a cube viewed perpendicularly in relation to any of its sides
would appear a square.
The Projection Box
An orthographic drawing can be illustrated with a projection box whose sides are
made of either plastic or glass. These sides are hinged to ne another as shown in figure
49.

Fig. 49. The projection box

 The top side or plane is hinged to the front side and the front side is hinged to the
right, left, and bottom sides of the box. These sides or planes are also called the picture or
projection planes. If the box is opened flat on a table or on the plane of the drawing paper
of the drawing paper, it will appear as shown in figure 50.

Fig. 50. sides of the projection box laid flat on one plane
If an object is positioned inside the box so that every pat or side of it can be seen
in all sides, its views can be projected perpendicularly and drawn with the Pentel pen on the
transparent sides of the projection box, as shown in figure 51.

Fig. 51. Three views of a rectangle

block drawn on the sides or planes
of the projection box.
 Only three views are projected here: the to view (TV), front view (FV), and the
right-side view (RSV). In the top view, the other vertical sides or surfaces of the object
cannot be seen but are represented by the edges or lines of the top view. The reason for
this is that the eyes are looking perpendicularly at these surfaces when the edges are being
traced on the top plane. In short, a surface perpendicular to the observers eyes will be seen
as a line or an edge. This is one of the principles of orthographic drawing.

If the projection is opened flat, the position of the top, front, and right-side views are
arranged in an L shape, as shown in figure 52.

Fig. 52. Position of the three views.

 In general practice, the right-side view is labeled with the words SIDE VIEW and ]
the word RIGHT is omitted. But if a left-side view is also drawn, the word LEFT must be added
to SIDE VIEW. It will be noted from figure 52 that the top view is directly or vertically in line with
the front view. The width of the top view is equal to the width of the side view. If the other views
are draw, their arrangements or locations will appear as shown in figure 53.

Fig. 53. The six principal orthographic views of an object

In the above drawing, the right-and left-side views and the rear view are horizontally
in line with the front view.
Three views are generally required to represent an object. These are the top, front,
and right side views. The name of the top view must be indicated above, not under, this view.
Those of the front and side views are indicated below his views.
Principles of Orthographic Drawing

Some of the principles involved in orthographic drawing have been mentioned in

the preceding paragraphs. They are listed below in order to group them with the
others.
1. The top view is directly above the front view.
2. The side views are horizontally in line with the front view.
3. The width of the top view is equal to the width of the side views.
4. When a line or an edge is viewed perpendicularly to plane of projection, it
appears as a point. (See figure 54-a)
5. A line or edge parallel to the plane of projection will also appear as a line or
edge in its exact or true length. (See figure 54-b)
6. A line or edge inclined to the plane of projection will appear shorter or
foreshortened. (See figure 54-c)
7. A surface perpendicular to the projection plane will appear as a line or edge
equal in length to the nearest edge of the surface, which in this case is either its
length or its width, depending on its position. (See figure 54-d)
8. A surface parallel to the plane of projection will be shown in its exact or true
shape and size. (See figure 54-e)
9. A surface inclined to the plane of projection will also appear as a surface but
smaller in size and shape. (See figure 54-f)
10. No line or edge of the object can be projected longer than its true length.
Top View Top View
●A A B
A
B

B
Front View A Front View
a. A line perpendicular to c. A line inclined to the top plane
the top plane

Top View
Top View B
A
A B
A B

A B
Front View
D C
b. A line parallel to
Front View
the top plane d. A surface perpendicular to the top plane.
 Top View Top View
A B A B

D C D C

D C D
Front View
Front View
f. A surface inclined to the
e. A surface parallel top plane
to the top plane

Figure 54. Projection of lines or edges at various positions in relation to the top
plane.
Alphabet of Lines

In sketching orthographic drawings, certain conventional lines, each for a

definite purpose, are used. These lines are commonly called alphabet of lines and
must be properly drawn or sketched so as not to be misinterpreted. Figure 55
shows some of these lines. In the left column are lines drawn freehand, and in the
right are lines drawn mechanically.
a. Lines drawn freehand b. Lines drawn mechanically
Border line

Visible line
Hidden line
Center line

Projection line
.20 Dimension line .20
Leader line

Reference line
Fig. 55. The
Limiting line alphabet lines
Pictorial Drawings

An orthographic drawing is sometimes supplemented with a pictorial drawing to

optimize one’s understanding of the object. The pictorial drawing often represents
a portion of the object and shows the method of its construction. In others, the
whole object is shown in one view.
The most common pictorial drawings used in the manufacturing industries are
the isometric, the oblique and the perspective. Of the three, the perspective is the
most pleasing to the eyes. The first two are not so pleasing to see, but they are
easier to draw.

Isometric Drawing

The term isometric is derived from two words: iso, “equal,” and metric,
“measure.” The word isometric thus means “equal measure”. In other words, the
size of an isometric view is in equal measure either to its orthographic views or to
the scaled drawing. It is generally in equal measure to the size of the
orthographic views. Hence, all measurements used or laid out in an isometric
drawing are taken from orthographic views. In some cases, however, the size of
the isometric drawing is proportionately reduced to the size of these views.
Isometric also means equal measure of the angles formed by its three axes, as
shown in figure 66-c.
 The three axes of an isometric drawing are the vertical (2) and the 30° left and
right cross-axes (1 and 3), respectively. The three positions involved in drawing
these axes are also shown in this figure.

a. First position b. Second position c. Third position

Figure 66. Isometric Axes

The axes in the first position are used when one desires to build up the isometric
view from the bottom of the object. The second position is used when one desires
to construct the view from the top of the object.
 The angular measurement of the cross-axes is measured 30° from a horizontal line.
In sketching, this angle is merely estimated. A slight change in the size of this angle will not
affect the view. It may in fact improve its appearance if the angle is smaller. In mechanical
drawing, however, this 30° angle must be strictly followed.
The isometric axes are very light lines and are drawn before the visible lines or edges
of the object are shown. All measurements are laid parallel to or along these axes. In figure
67 a hollow block of wood is drawn in orthographic views and its isometric view drawn at the
right side. It will be noted that the principal measurements, namely, thickness (T), width (W),
and length (L), of the isometric drawing are made equal in measure to those found in the
orthographic views.
All edges of the object parallel to the axes are called isometric lines and those not
parallel to them are called nonisometric lines.

Fig. 67. Measurements used in the isometric drawing are taken from the orthographic views.
 The most widely used method of drawing an isometric view is the “boxing” method.
In this method, a “box” is drawn with its edges parallel to the isometric axes. These edges, or
lines, are drawn very lightly and hence they are sometimes called crate lines or construction
lines.
Follow these steps in sketching an isometric view by use of the boxing method:
1. Draw the three axes as light and straight as possible. Be sure the cross axes are about
30° from the lower edge of the paper.
2. Lay out the principal measurements on the axes. Get these measurements from the
orthographic views. A piece of paper may be used when transferring the measurements in
order to form the “box”.
3. Draw the “box” or create lines.
4. Draw the details of the object.
5. Check the accuracy of your drawing.
6. Trace the visible edges with heavier lines.
7. If required, show the hidden edges. The dashes at the corners should touch each other.
8. Label the isometric view.

Figure 68. graphically shows the steps mentioned above except steps 5 and 8.

Step2. Lay out principal measurements.

Step 1. Draw the isometric axes. (refer to orthographic views.
Step3. Draw the “box” or create Step4. Draw the details.
lines.

Step5. Trace the visible edges and Step6. If desired, draw hidden lines.
show end grain of wood.
Figure 68 Steps involved in sketching an isometric view of a hollow block
(boxing method.
Kinds of Dimension
Dimensions are indicated in drawings by dimension lines and numerical figures.
Dimension lines have been discussed in chapter IV. The two kinds of
dimension are size and location dimensions. Size dimensions give the detail
and overall sizes of the object, location dimensions merely locate part or
parts of the object. To locate a part, there must be at least two location
dimensions, as shown in figure 83.

Size dimension (S) Location dimension (L)

Fig. 83. Size and location dimensions
Overall dimensions are the total thickness or height, width, and length of an
object, while detail dimensions are the thickness, length and width of each part
of the same object. The object in figure 83 has six size dimensions and five
location dimension, making a total of eleven dimensions to completely describe
its size and the proportion of its parts. Complete dimensioning of any object is
necessary no matter how simple or complex it may be.
Dimension Rules

To help the beginner remember the dimensioning rules, it should be

remembered that each rule is followed by illustration or illustrations. Not included
here are rules followed in advanced dimensioning such as limit dimensioning and
the dimensioning of weld joints. The following are the dimensioning rules which
every draftsman should remember :

1. Dimensions should generally be placed between views.

The areas or spaces between views are indicated by light shaded lines, as shown
in figure 85.

Figure 85. Location of most dimensions in a drawing

2. Avoid repetition of dimensions. Figure 86-b shows repeated dimensions.

a. Sound practice b. Unsound practice

Figure 86. Repeating dimensions is an unsound practice.

3. Dimension lines should be parallel to the edge or line being measured.

Figure 87. Proper and improper ways of positioning dimension lines

4. The flares of the arrowhead should be properly made. In sketching, an
arrowhead may be made with one heavy stroke of the soft pencil, as shown in figure
88-b.

(a)

(b)

Proper Improper

Figure 88. Proper and improper ways of drawing an arrowhead

5. The fine line in a dimension line must be strictly observed. It should be
about one-fourth the thickness of the visible line. Its thickness should be the same
as that of the projection line.

Figure 89. The dimension line is a fine line

6. The figures or numbers in a dimension line should be legible and properly
located. They are shown in figure 90-a.

Figure 90. Figures in dimension lines

7. Dimensional figures are preferably directional, as shown in figure 91-a.
Undirectional dimensions may be used if the company desires them. Never mix
directional and undirectional dimensions in a drawing.

a. Directional (Preferred for b. Undirectional (Practiced in some

beginners) industrial firms.

Figure 91. Positions of dimensional figures at different angles of the dimension

lines
8. Use an outside dimension if the space is limited, and use an inside
dimensions if the space is ample or wide.

Figure 92. Outside and inside dimensions

9. Only metric measurements should appear in drawings.

Figure 93. Use one system of measurement in every drawing.

10. Continuous dimensions should be used whenever possible.

Figure 94. Continuous dimensions

11. Staggered dimensioning should be used when the spaces for the
dimensions are narrow.

Figure 95. Staggered dimensioning

12. A dimension line may be terminated by a projection, visible, hidden, or
center line as shown in figure 96.

Figure 96. Lines that can terminate a dimension line

13. Dimension lines should not be extended beyond the edge or line being
measured. It should always touch the projection line or edge being measured.

Figure 97. Exact termination of a dimension line

14. Arrowheads should point to the terminating line and not to the
dimensional figure.

Figure 98. Proper and improper ways of positioning the arrowheads

15. Let no workman add or subtract dimensions. To put it another way,

complete all dimensions needed.

Figure 99. Complete measurements necessary

16. When giving the locational dimensions for round holes, measure the
center-to-center distance between holes and from the center line of the holes
to the two nearest visible lines.

Figure 100. Locating holes

17. Place the dimension closest to the part being measured. Dimensions may
be placed inside a view.

Figure 101. Dimensioning of a part inside an orthographic view

18. Never crowd dimensions. The dimension closest to a view should be about
7 mm. The other dimensions could be similarly spaced. A void aligning
dimensional figures vertically.

Figure 102. Avoid crowding of dimensions

19. Projection or extension lines should be properly drawn. They should

extend about 3 mm from the dimension line and not closer than 1 ½ mm from the
object or visible line.

Figure 103. Use of projection lines in dimensioning

20. Give the diameter of a circle or round hole. Note the various ways of
positioning the dimension lines in figure 104.

Figure 104. Techniques of dimensioning circles of various sizes

21. Give the radii of arcs.

Figure 105. Techniques of dimensioning arcs of various sizes

22. Measure angles in degrees. The figures should be undirectional. In this case
the dimension line is in the form of an arc the center of which is at the vertex of the
angle.

Figure 106. Techniques of dimensioning angles of various sizes.

23. Dimension irregular curves by the square or base line method. In figure
107-b, points a to d are each located by two dimensions.

Figure 107. Dimensioning an irregular curve

24. Write or print the dimensional figures properly.

Figure 108. Correct and incorrect ways of writing the dimensional figures

25. Use radial dimensioning for large arcs, especially those with centers
outside the drawing paper.

Figure 109. Radial dimensioning

26. For turned pieces, put one set of dimensions on one side and the other set
on the other side of the views, as shown in figure 110.

Figure 110. Dimensioning a turned object

27. Metric measurements may be given in whole numbers. In this case, a note
should be added to the drawing to identify the kind of dimensions used. Such a
note may run thus: “ All dimensions are in centimeters,” “All dimensions are in
millimeters,” or “All dimensions are in meters unless otherwise specified.” (See
figure 111.
Note: All dimensions are
in centimeters

Figure 111. Metric measurements in whole numbers

28. Dimensions may be given as notes in the drawing. (See figure 112.)

29. Avoid crossing dimensions.

a. Sound practice b. Unsound practice

Figure 112. Crossing dimensions is unsound practice.

Dimensioning Isometric and Oblique Drawings
The rules to be observed in dimensioning orthographic drawings also apply to
dimensioning of isometric and oblique drawings, except that when dimensioning
inclined visible edges or lines, the projection lines are not perpendicular to the
dimension lines.

Figure 113. Dimensioning isometric and oblique drawings.

LETTERING => is the process of writing or printing the letters either by freehand or
by the use of lettering devices.
=> is the written language of industry skill in lettering is acquired
through constant correct practice.

ORIGIN OF LETTERING => all writings and letterings started in the form of picture
writings known as PICTOGRAPHS.

THE EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHICS => is an example of picture writings were

written on leaves known as PAPYRUS.
The earliest forms were the EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHICS.

TYPES OF BASIC LETTERS:

1. GOTHIC LETTERS => all letters composed of uniform width elements. This
type of letters maybe lettered in lightface or boldface. This is the official letter style
use by draftsman.

LIGHT – Lightface (Single Stroke)

BOLD – boldface (Wide and Bold)
PARTS OF GOTHIC LETTERS

1. Stem – Horizontal or vertical parts of letters.

2. Lobe – Curved parts of letters.

3. Swash – All slanting parts of letters.

2. ROMAN LETTERS => all letters composed of thick and thin elements used in
identifying buildings especially government and ecclesiastical building.
PARTS OF ROMAN LETTERS
1. SERIF – is the horizontal thin stroke added to the end of
the thick or thin stem.

2. THICK STEM – is twice or more of the thin stem.

3. THIN STEM – is the narrowest part of the letters.

4. FILLET – is the curved line which connects the stem to

the serif

3. TEXT LETTERS => this includes all style of Old English. Text, Cloister Church
text and other types are used in documents like diplomas and certificates.
 ~ This letters maybe written in the upper case letters or (capital letters) and
lower case letters or (small letters).
~ If this letters are written upright, they are called vertical letters. If they are
written slanting, they are called inclined letters.

FAMILIES OF LETTERS:
1. Straight Line Letters – AEFHKLMNTVWXYZ = 15
2. Curved Line Letters – BCDGJOPQRSU = 11

UNIFORM AREAS BETWEEN LETTERS (“I”)

UNIFORM LINE LETTERS (“O”)

THREE PROPORTIONS OF LETTERS:

1. NORMAL => is used if the space is good enough.
NORMAL LETTERS

2. COMPRESSED OR CONDENSED => is used if the area is limited or small.

LETTERS
3. EXTENDED OR EXPANDED LETTERS => is used if the area is more than
enough.

LETTERS

TWO MOST IMPORTANT REQUIREMENT IN LETTERING:

1. Legibility
2. Ease rapidity of execution

● UNIFORMITY AS ONE OF THE MAIN REQUIREMENT IN LETTERING:

1. Uniform in style
2. Uniform in height
3. Uniform in verticality or inclination
4. Uniform in the thickness of elements
5. Uniform areas between letters (“I”)
6. Uniform areas between words (“O”)
 ● TO LETTERS WELL ONE MUST:
1. Learn the shape of letters
2. Learn the strokes of letters
3. Learn the rules of spacing
4. Practice of determination to improve
● SPACING OF LETTERS
1. Visual Spacing – SPACING
2. Mechanical Spacing – S P A C I N G

GUIDE LINES => are line used to maintain the uniform height of LETTERS.
Beginners usually make of paper with guidelines like the sketchpad, cross section
paper, coordinate paper or graphing paper. As a practice never letter without
guidelines.

GUIDELINE USED IN LETTERING

1. HORIZONTAL GUIDE LINE => used to regulate the height of letters or to
maintain uniform height of letters.
2. VERTICAL GUIDE LINE => used to maintain the verticality or uprightness of
letters.
3. INCLINED GUIDE LINES