INTRODUCTION TO CELL

REPRODUCTION
 Vocabulary
 Haploid - (of a cell or nucleus) having a single set of
unpaired chromosomes.
 Chromosomes - a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and
protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying
genetic information in the form of genes.
 Diploid - (of a cell or nucleus) containing two complete sets
of chromosomes, one from each parent.
Mitosis and Meiosis

 Mitosis and meiosis are similar processes in that they

both result in the separation of existing cells into new
ones. They differ
 In their specific processes as well as in their products.
The reason for these differences lies in the
 Difference in the class of cells that each process
creates.
 Mitosis is responsible for reproducing somatic cells
and
 Meiosis is responsible for reproducing germ cells.
In this section,
Mitosis

 In multi-cellular organisms, like ourselves,

mitosis only occurs in somatic cells, which
comprise all cells in an organism excluding
germ cells.
 Cells that undergo mitosis duplicate their
chromosomes, resulting in cells with two times
their normal haploid or diploid numbers
(4N chromosomes).
 Meiosis

 There are two major differences between mitosis and

meiosis.
 First, meiosis involves not one, but Two cell divisions.

 Second, meiosis leads to the production of germ cells,

which are cells that give rise to gametes.

 Germ cells are different from somatic cells in a

critical way. Whereas somatic cells are diploid,

meaning they have two copies of each chromosome,
germ cells are haploid.
Mitosis
Mitosis

 Mitosis is a type of cell division in which

one cell (the mother) divides to produce
two new cells (the daughters) that are
genetically identical to itself.
 In all of these cases, the “goal” of mitosis

is to make sure that each daughter cell

gets a perfect, full set of chromosomes.
Phases of Mitosis - Prophase
 The mitotic
spindle begins to form.
 The nucleolus (or
nucleoli, plural), a part of
the nucleus where
ribosomes are made,
disappears.
  In late prophase (sometimes
Late Prophase also called prometaphase),
the mitotic spindle begins to
capture and organize the
chromosomes.
 The chromosomes finish
condensing, so they are very
compact.
 The nuclear envelope breaks
down, releasing the
chromosomes.
 The mitotic spindle grows
more, and some of the
microtubules start to “capture”
chromosomes.
  In metaphase, the spindle
Metaphase has captured all the
chromosomes and lined
them up at the middle of
the cell, ready to divide.
 All the chromosomes align
at the metaphase
plate (not a physical
structure, just a term for
the plane where the
chromosomes line up).
At this stage, the two kinetochores of each chromosome
should be attached to microtubules from
opposite spindle poles
 The protein “glue” that holds
Anaphase the sister chromatids
together is broken down,
allowing them to separate.
In anaphase, the Each is now its own
sister chromatids chromosome. The
separate from each chromosomes of each pair
other and are pulled are pulled towards opposite
ends of the cell.
towards opposite
ends of the cell.

Microtubules not attached

to chromosomes elongate
and push apart, separating
the poles and making the
cell
  In telophase, the cell is
Telophase nearly done dividing, and it
starts to re-establish its
normal structures as
cytokinesis (division of the
cell contents) takes place.

 The mitotic spindle is broken down into

its building blocks.
 Two new nuclei form, one for each set
of chromosomes. Nuclear membranes
and nucleoli reappear.
 The chromosomes begin to decondense
and return to their “stringy” form.
Cytokinesis
MEIOSIS
Meiosis
 Meiosis
 Meiosis is a process where a single cell divides twice
to produce four cells containing half the original
amount of genetic information. These cells are our sex
cells – sperm in males, eggs in females.
 During meiosis one cell? divides twice to

form four daughter cells.

 These four daughter cells only have half the number

of chromosomes? of the parent cell – they are

haploid.
 Meiosis produces our sex cells or gametes? (eggs in
females and sperm in males).
Meiosis I
 P-I: Chromosomes condense,
nuclear membrane dissolves,
homologous chromosomes form
bivalents, crossing over occurs
 During this lining up, DNA sequences
can be exchanged between the
homologous chromosomes. This type
of genetic recombination is called
crossing over, and allows the daughter
cells of meiosis to be genetically
unique from one another.
 Meiosis I
 The chromosome pairs line
up next to each other
along the center (equator)
of the cell.
 The centrioles are now at
opposites poles of the cell
with the meiotic spindles
extending from them.
The meiotic spindle fibers attach to one chromosome
of each pair.
 Meiosis I
 The pair of chromosomes
are then pulled apart by
the meiotic spindle, which
pulls one chromosome to
one pole of the cell and
the other chromosome to
the opposite pole.

In meiosis I the sister chromatids stay together. This

is different to what happens in mitosis and meiosis
II.
 Meiosis I
 The chromosomes move to the
opposite poles of the cell.
 At each pole of the cell a full set
of chromosomes gather together.
 A membrane forms around each
set of chromosomes to create two
new nuclei.
The single cell then pinches in the middle to form two
separate daughter cells each containing a full set of
chromosomes within a nucleus. This process is known as
cytokinesis.
 Meiosis II

 The second division

separates sister
chromatids (these
chromatids may not be
identical due to crossing
over in prophase I)
 Meiosis II
 Now there are two daughter cells,
each with 23 chromosomes (23
pairs of chromatids).
 In each of the two daughter cells
the chromosomes condense again
into visible X-shaped structures
that can be easily seen under a
microscope.

The membrane around the nucleus in each daughter cell

dissolves away releasing the chromosomes.
The centrioles duplicate.
The meiotic spindle forms again.
 Meiosis II
 In each of the two
daughter cells the
chromosomes (pair of
sister chromatids) line
up end-to-end along
the equator of the cell.
The centrioles are now at opposites poles in each of the
daughter cells.
Meiotic spindle fibers at each pole of the cell attach to
each of the sister chromatids.
 Meiosis II

 The sister chromatids

are then pulled to
opposite poles due to
the action of the
meiotic spindle.
 The separated
chromatids are now
individual
chromosomes.
 Meiosis II
The chromosomes move to the opposite
poles of the cell.
At each pole of the cell a full set of
chromosomes gather together.
A membrane forms around each set of
chromosomes to create two new cell
nuclei.
This is the last phase of meiosis,
however cell division is not complete
without another round of cytokinesis.
Once cytokinesis is complete there are four granddaughter cells, each
with half a set of chromosomes (haploid): in males, these four cells are all
sperm cells in females, one of the cells is an egg cell while the other three
are polar bodies (small cells that do not develop into eggs).
Let’s look Back
 What type of cell division where a single cell
divides twice to produce four cells containing
half the original amount of genetic information?
 What is the difference between metaphase 1 and
metaphase 2?
 What happens during prophase 1 that makes all
gametes unique?
 What type of cell does meiosis propduces?
 Let’s test your learning
1. Meiosis results in _____
a. 2 haploid daughter cells
b. 4 haploid daughter cells
c. 2 diploid daughter cells
d. 4 diploid daughter cells
2. Which of the following cells undergo meiosis?
a. sperm cells
b. liver cells
c. unicellular organisms
d. all of these
3. The picture depicts what phase of meiosis?
A. prophase 1
b. prophase 2
c. anaphase 1
d. anaphase 2
4. Crossing-over occurs during:
a. anaphase 1
b. metaphase 1
c. prophase 1
d. prophase 2
5. Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces:
a. zygotes
b. chromosomes
c. DNA
d. gametes
6. The picture depicts what stage of meiosis?
a. prophase 1
b. anaphase 1
c. metaphase 1
d. metaphase 2
7. Which of the following distinguishes
prophase 1 of meiosis from prophase
of mitosis?
a. homologous chromosomes pair up
b. spindle forms
c. nuclear membrane breaks down
d. chromosomes become visible
8. What is the order of steps for Meiosis I?
a. Telophase I, Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I
b. Anaphase I, Telophase I, Prophase I, Metaphase I
c. Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I
d. Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I, Prophase I
e. Prophase I, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II
9. How many chromosomes does the daughter cells
possess after Meiosis 1?
a. 23 b. 46 c. 92 d. 11 1/2
10. How many chromosomes does the daughter cells
possess after Meiosis 2?
a. 23 b. 46 c. 92 d. 11 1/2