Algorithms

Problem Solving
 Topic & Structure of the lesson
Design

In this chapter you will learn about:

• Problem Solving
• Algorithm
• Pseudocodes
• Flowcharts

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 Key Terms you must be able to use
Design

If you have mastered this topic, you should be

able to use the following terms correctly in your
assignments and exams:

• program

• pseudocode

• flowchart

• algorithm
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 Problem Solving Techniques
Design

In this chapter you will learn about:

 What problem solving is

 The software development method of
problem solving using computers
 Basic algorithm control structures
 The sequence structure
 The selection structure
 The repetition structure

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 Problem Solving Techniques
Design

By the time you have completed this chapter,you

will have acquired the ability to:

 Apply the software development method to

solve problems

 Difference between the Algorithm & the

Flowchart

 Knowing about the control structures

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 Problem Solving
Design

UNDERSTANDING THE PROBLEM

First:
What is the unknown? What are the data?What
You have to is the condition?
understand the Is it possible to satisfy the condition?Is the
problem. condition sufficient to determine the unknown?Or
is it sufficient?Or Redundant? Or Contradictory?
Draw a figure.Introduce suitable
notation.Separate the various parts of the
condition.Can you write them down?

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 Problem Solving
Design

DEVISING A PLAN
Second: Have you seen it before? Or have you
Find the connection seen the same problem in slightly different
between the data and form?
the unknown. Do you know a related problem?
Auxiliary problems Look at the unknown! Try to think of a
may be devised if familiar problem having the same or similar
needed. unknown. Split the problem into smaller,
You should obtain simple sub-problems. If you cannot solve
eventually a plan of the proposed problem try to solve first
the solution. some related problem. Or solve more
general problem. Or special case of the
problem. Or solve the part of the problem.

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 Problem Solving
Design

Third: CARRYING OUT THE PLAN

Carry out your Carrying out your plan of the solution,check

plan. each step. Can you see clearly that step is
correct? Can you prove that it is correct?
Fourth: LOOKING BACK

Examine the Can you check the result? Can you derive
solution the result differently? Can you use the
obtained. result, or the method, for some other
problem?

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 Problem Solving
Design

The software development method

The software development method consists of the
following steps:
 Requirements specification
 Analysis
 Design
 Implementation
 Testing and verification
 Documentation
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 Algorithmic Problem Solving
Design

Algorithmic problem:
Any problem whose solution can be expressed as a
set of executable instructions.

Algorithm:
A well defined computational procedure consisting of
a set of instructions, that takes some value or set of
values, as input, and produces some value or set of
values, as output.

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 Algorithmic Problem Solving
Design

Derived from the name of Mohammed al-

khowarizmi, a Persian mathematician in the ninth
century.
Al-khowarizmi--Algorismus(in Latin)--Algorithm
 An algorithm is like a recipe, that converts the
ingredients into some culinary dish.
 The formal written version is a program.
 Algorithms/programs are the software.The machine
that runs the programs is the hardware.

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 Algorithmic Problem Solving
Design

Ingredient

Recipe Cooking utensils

(software) (hardware)

Al-gong
Bah-kut-the

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 Characteristics of an Algorithm
Design

 Each step of an algorithm must be exact,

preciously and ambiguously described.
 It must terminate, i.e. it contains a finite
number of steps.
 It must be effective, i.e.., produce the correct
output.
 It must be general, i.e.. to solve every
instance of the problem.

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 Characteristics of an Algorithm
Design

 An Algorithm is implemented in some programming

language.
program = Algorithm + Data Structures.
 Data Structures refer to the types of data used and
how the data are organized in the program.
 An algorithm is usually presented in the form of some
pseudo-code, which is a mixture of English
statement,some mathematical notations,and selected
keywords from a programming language.

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 Characteristics of an Algorithm
Design

 An Algorithm should emphasize the

WHAT’s and not the HOW’s. Consider the
problem below:

PROBLEM:

You are required to design a complete

system which will enable the sum of two
values to be calculated.

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 Problem Solving
Design

To grapple with this problem, we have to

understand the problem from the human
perspective.
A question to ask yourself is this,

“How Would You Calculate the Sum of Two

Values?”

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 Problem Solving
Design

As the computer is also a device similar to the way

in which the human brain functions, the process of
calculating the sum of two values can also be easily
performed by the computer.

=
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 Problem Solving
Design
Processing
(Brains)

Input

Output

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 Problem Solving
Design
Output Device

CPU
(Brains)

Input Device

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 Problem Solving
Design

Processing
5 10
5 + 10 = 15

15

Input
Output
Let us assume we are interested in calculating the sum of 5
and 10.
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 Problem Solving
Design

As shown previously, the example values (5 and

10) have been specified explicitly.
As the brain is flexible enough in calculating a
wide range of numbers, the two input values
have to be generalised.

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 Problem Solving
Design

Value2
Value1
Sum = Value1 + Value2

Sum

Notice that instead of using specific numbers,

variables are used to represent these values.
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 What Are Variables?
Design

Variables are memory locations within the computer which

allows pieces of data to be stored.

The word variable comes from the word vary, which means
that whatever you place within a variable can be changed.

A variable can be viewed as a container used to store

things.

Data (for example, name,

age, salary) can be stored in
these containers.
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 What Are Variables?
Design

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 Problem Solving
Design

Now that we have an exact idea about how the

problem is solved, let us represent this in a clearer
manner, using the defining diagram.

Input Processing Output

Value1 Sum
Value2

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 Problem Solving
Design

The next step is to identify the actual processing

steps required to convert the input to become the
output.

Input Processing Output

Value1 1) Read Value1, Value2 Sum

Value2 2) Calculate Sum
3) Display Sum

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 Algorithm Development
Design
Once the defining diagram has been
developed, the next logical step is to develop
the algorithm (which is much more detailed).

Input Processing Output

Value1 1) Read Value1, Value2 Sum

Value2 2) Calculate Sum
3) Display Sum

The developed processing steps have to be more

detailed in the algorithm.
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 Algorithm Development
Design
The basic mathematical operators used in algorithms
are as follows:-

+ addition
- subtraction
* multiplication
/ division
= assignment
() brackets for grouping calculations

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 Algorithm Development
Design

Example of an algorithm (using pseudocodes) which

can be used to carry out the tasks outlined in the
defining diagram is as follows:-

1) Read Value1, Value2

2) Calculate
Sum = Value1 + Value2
3) Display Sum

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 Pseudocoding
Design

A Pseudocode language is semiformal, English-

like language with a limited vocabulary that can be
used to design and describe algorithms.

The pseudocode language can be used for:

 Designing algorithms
 Communicating algorithms as programs
 Implementing algorithms as programs
 Debugging logic errors in program

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 Pseudocode for the Control Structures
Design

The Sequence Control Structure:

The sequence control structure is a series of steps
or statements that are executed in the order in which
they are written in an algorithm.
For Example:
read taxable income
read filing status
compute income tax

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 Cont’d
Design

The Selection Control Structure:

The selection control structure defines two courses of
action, depending on the outcome of a condition. A
condition is an expression that, when evaluated, computes
to either true or false.
Syntax is: if condition
then-part
else
else-part
end-if

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 Decision Making
Design

Being able to mimic the way the human brain

works, the computer also has the ability to make
decisions.
Decision making can be represented in
pseudocodes using the IF...THEN construct.

IF (expression) THEN
:
:
ENDIF
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 Decision Making
Design

The expression is a comparison between

two values which evaluates to either true of
false.

IF (expression) THEN
:
:
ENDIF
Statements are
placed here.
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 Decision Making
Design

Example:-
We are looking for a job which pays more than
RM4000.

Example of an
Expression

IF (Salary>4000) THEN
Say "I Will Take The Job!!"
ENDIF

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 Decision Making
Design

Commonly used relational operators in expressions:-

> Greater Than

< Less Than
= Equals To
<> Not Equals To
>= Greater Than or Equals To
<= Less Than or Equals To
() Brackets used for prioritising certain calculations

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 Decision Making
Design

Since all expressions works out to be either true or false,

what the IF..THEN statement represents is a two-state
condition.
For example,
A potential employer is waiting for you to give a reply (on the
spot) about the job offer with a salary of RM2000. Your
decision would be to only take a job worth more than
RM4000. What would you say?
IF (Salary>4000) THEN
Say “YES!”
ELSE
Say “NO!”
ENDIF
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 Decision Making
Design

Certain conditions may give rise to more than

one expression being evaluated. These are
known as compound expressions.
Example:-
You are interested in taking up a job which pays
more than RM4000 and that the company must
also provide a credit card.
IF (Salary>4000) And (CreditCard=YES) THEN
Take Job!!
ENDIF

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 Decision Making
Design

Compound expressions can be represented

using the following operators:-

AND Every expression must evaluate to be

true in order for the whole expression to
be true.
OR As long as any one of the expression
can be true, the entire IF statement will
be true.
NOT The inverse (opposite) of the entire
expression.
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 Decision Making
Design

IF statements can be nested, that is, placed

within another IF statement.
This is used in situations when the expression
is more complex than the simple decisions (as
seen earlier).

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 Decision Making
For example, this statement......... Design

IF (Salary>4000) And (CreditCard=YES) THEN

Say “Yes I Will Take The Job!!”
ENDIF
can be represented like this.........
IF (Salary>4000) THEN
IF (CreditCard=YES) THEN
Say “Yes I Will Take The Job!!”
ELSE
Say “No Credit Card?”
Say “Sorry!!”
ENDIF
ELSE
Say “Not Enough Pay!!”
ENDIF
........ whereby more possibilities can be represented.
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 Decision Making
Design
For good practice...........
IF (Salary>4000) THEN
IF (CreditCard=YES) THEN
Say “Yes I Will Take The Job!!”
ELSE
Say “No Credit Card?”
Say “Sorry!!”
ENDIF
ELSE
Say “Not Enough Pay!!”
ENDIF

........ ensure that statements are properly

indented to indicate block of statements
which belong together.
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 Cont’d
Design

For Example:

if a is greater than b then

print “A is greater”
else
print “B is greater”
end if

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 Cont’d
Design

Repetition Control Structure:

The repetition control structure specifies a block of
one or more statements that are repeatedly executed
until a condition is satisfied.
Syntax is:
while condition
loop-body
end-while

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 Looping Constructs
Design

Looping constructs (also known as repetition or

iteration constructs) are a kind of construct found
in pseudocodes which allows statements (or a
group of statements) to be repeated.
The main reason why looping constructs are
provided is because most of the problems which
we encounter everyday requires some degree of
repetition.

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 Looping Constructs
Design

An example of a process which is iterative:-

Payroll processing is very much an iterative

process as the person processing the
payroll applies the same calculations for
each employee to produce the pay slip.

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 Looping Constructs
Design

The looping constructs available in pseudocodes

are as follows:-

DOWHILE...ENDDO
FOR…NEXT
REPEAT...UNTIL

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 Looping Constructs
Design

The format of the

DOWHILE...ENDDO construct is
shown below:-
DOWHILE (expression)
:
:
:
ENDDO
Group of An expression which determines
statements whether the loop will continue.
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 Looping Constructs
Design

The format of the FOR...NEXT

construct is shown below:-

FOR (initialze TO expression) STEP increment

:
:
:
ENDDO
Group of An expression which determines
statements whether the loop will continue.
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 Looping Constructs
Design

The format of the

REPEAT...UNTIL construct is
shown below:-

REPEAT
:
:
:
UNTIL (expression)
Group of An expression which determines
statements whether the loop will continue.
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 Looping Constructs
Design

Take a look at the following example:-

You are required to develop a complete system

which will allow the total payroll to be
calculated.
The system is required to read in the amount to
be paid for each employee.
The moment the system receives an input
value of -99, the system is required to stop and
display the total payroll.
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 Looping Constructs
Design

The Defining Diagram

Input Processing Output

Salary 1) Read Salary Total

2) Calculate Total
3) Display Total

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 Looping Constructs
Design
Algorithm (Using Pseudocodes)
1) Display "Enter Salary"
2) Read Salary
3) Total = 0
4) DOWHILE (Salary<>-99)
Total = Total + Salary
Display "Enter Salary"
Read Salary
ENDDO
5) Display "Total Payroll = ", Total
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 Cont’d
Design

Example:

Dowhile (income is less than 50000)

print “Enter taxable income;should be
greater than or equal to 50000”
read income
Enddo

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 Desk Check Table
Design

A desk check table is used to verify the correctness of the

design. This is to ensure that the program which will
eventually be developed is going to produce the answer
which is required.
The desk check table is developed based on the following
steps:-
1) Identify the data sets.
2) Identify the expected results.
3) Trace through the algorithm with the data sets using
a trace table.
4) Analyse & compare the results produced in step (3)
and the expected results in step (2).
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 Desk Check Table
Design
Identify Data Sets

Input Processing Output

Value1 1) Read Value1, Value2 Sum

Value2 2) Calculate Sum
3) Display Sum

Focus on the input section of the defining diagram and

identify some possible values (data sets) which can be
used to test the system.
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 Desk Check Table
Design
Identify Expected Results

Input Processing Output

Value1 1) Read Value1, Value2 Sum

Value2 2) Calculate Sum
3) Display Sum

Focus on the output section of the defining diagram and

identify some possible values which the system will
produce based on the data sets.
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 Desk Check Table
Design
Trace Table - Data Set 1

Value1 Value2 Sum

Read 5 3

Calculate 8

Display 

Do the results match the expected

results?
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 Desk Check Table
Design
Trace Table - Data Set 2

Value1 Value2 Sum

Read 8 13

Calculate 21

Display 

Do the results match the expected

results?
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 Desk Check Table
Design
Trace Table - Data Set 3

Value1 Value2 Sum

Read 15 9

Calculate 24

Display 

Do the results match the expected

results?
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 Program Flowcharts
Design

As humans are more inclined towards

understanding diagrams and pictures rather
than words, pseudocodes tends to become
tedious to understand if too lengthy.
Program flowcharts, because they are
represented graphically, makes understanding
easier.

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 Program Flowcharts
Design
The following are the commonly used
symbols for drawing program flowcharts.
terminator off-page
connector

process storage

decision document
making

input/output connector

arrowheads
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 Program Flowcharts
Begin Design

Read Value1,
Value2

Calculate
Sum = Value1 + Value2

Display
Sum

End

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 Program Flowcharts
Begin Design

Read Amount

YES NO
Amount>20.00?

Calculate Calculate
Actual=Amount * 0.80 Actual=Amount

End

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 Flowcharting
Design

 Another technique used in designing and representing

algorithms.
 Alternative to pseudocoing
 A pseudocode description is verbal, a flowchart is
graphical in nature.

Definition:
 A flowchart is a graph consisting of geometrical shapes
that are connected by flow lines.

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 Sequence Structure
Design
Pseudocode: Flowchart:

statement_1 Statement -1
statement_2
------------ Statement -2
statement_n

Statement -n

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 Selection Structure
Design

Pseudocode: Flowchart:
if condition
then-part
else false true
condition
else-part
end_if
else-part then-part

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 Selection Structure
Design

Pseudocode: Flowchart:

if condition
Y
then-part true
end_if condition

N
then-part
false

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 Repetition Structure
Design

Pseudocode: Flowchart:

while condition
loop-body
end-while T
Y
condition loop-body
F
N

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 Summary
Design

 Problem Solving– the process of transforming the

description of a problem to its solution.
 To Solve complex problems, we use computers as a
tool and develop computer programs that give us
solutions.
 A commonly used method for problem solving using
computers is the software development method,which
consists of six steps.

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 Summary
Design

1. The Requirements specification, provides us with

a precise definition of the problem.

2. In the analysis phase we identify problem

inputs,outputs,special constraints, and formulas and
equations to be used.

3. The design phase is concerned with developing an

algorithm for the solution of the problem.

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 Summary
Design

4. The implementation of an algorithm is a computer

program.When executed, it should produce the solution to
the problem.

5. Program Verification is the process of ensuring that a

program meets user requirements.

6. Program testing, on the other hand, is the process of

executing a program to demonstrate its correctness.

7. Program Documentation facilitates the use of the

program,future program maintenance efforts,and program
debugging.

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 Summary
Design

 An algorithm is a sequence of a finite number of steps

arranged in a specific logical order that, when executed,
produce the solution for a problem.

 A pseudocode language is a semiformal,English-like

language with a limited vocabulary that can be used to
design and describe algorithms.

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 Summary
Design

 Any algorithm can be described in terms of three basic

control structures.They are the sequence,selection and
repetition structures.

 The top-down stepwise refinement of algorithms is a

fundamental problem-solving strategy.

 A Flowchart is a graphical representation of an

algorithm.

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 Quick Review Question
Design

1. State the difference between the Dowhile –

Enddo structure and the
Repeat – Until structure.

2. Write an algorithm that will display the first

hundred even numbers
using the Do-While loop.

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 Follow Up Assignment
Design

• This is an individual piece of work.

• Your source code will be discussed at the

end of the next lesson.

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 Summary of Main Teaching Points
Design

• Problem Solving

• Pseudocodes
• Flowcharts

• Basic control structures

• The sequence structure

• The selection structure
• The repetition structure

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