Wireless Networks

Authors:
Marius Popovici Technical University of
Daniel Crişan Cluj-Napoca
Zagham Abbas Group 3250

Cluj-Napoca, 24 Nov. 2003

Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) links two or more devices using
some wireless distribution method,usually providing a connection through an
access point to the wider internet. This gives users the mobility to move
around within a local coverage area and still be connected to the network.

Wireless LANs have become popular in the home due to ease of installation,
and the increasing popularity of laptop computers.

Public businesses such as coffee shops and malls have begun to offer
wireless access to their customers; sometimes for free.
 Stations
All components that can connect into a wireless medium in a network are
referred to as stations.
All stations are equipped with wireless network interface cards (WNICs).
Wireless stations fall into one of two categories: access points, and clients.
Access points (APs), normally routers, are base stations for the wireless
network. They transmit and receive radio frequencies for wireless enabled
devices to communicate with.
Wireless clients can be mobile devices such as laptops, 
personal digital assistants, phones, or fixed devices such as desktops and 
workstations that are equipped with a wireless network interface.
Basic service set
The basic building block of a WLAN
The basic service set (BSS) is a set of all stations that can communicate with each
other.
There are two types of BSS:
 Independent BSS (also referred to as IBSS),
 Infrastructure BSS.
Every BSS has an identification (ID) called the BSSID, which is the MAC address of
the access point servicing the BSS.
An independent BSS (IBSS) is an ad-hoc network that contains no access points,
which means they can not connect to any other basic service set.
An infrastructure can communicate with other stations not in the same basic service
set by communicating through access points.
Extended service set
An extended service set (ESS) is a set of connected BSSes with
APs.
Access points in an ESS are connected by a distribution
system. Each ESS has an ID called the SSID which is a 32-byte
(maximum) character string.

Distribution system
A distribution system (DS) connects access points in an
extended service set. The concept of a DS can be used to
increase network coverage through roaming between cells.
 Types of Wireless networks
Peer to Peer
An ad-hoc network is a network where stations communicate only peer to peer
(P2P). There is no base and no one gives permission to talk. This is accomplished
using the Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS).
A peer-to-peer (P2P) network allows wireless devices to directly communicate with
each other. Wireless devices within range of each other can discover and
communicate directly without involving central access points. This method is typically
used by two computers so that they can connect to each other to form a network.
If a signal strength meter is used in this situation, it may not read the strength
accurately and can be misleading, because it registers the strength of the strongest
signal, which may be the closest computer.
IEEE 802.11 define the physical layer (PHY) and MAC (Media Access Control) layers
based on CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance). The
802.11 specification includes provisions designed to minimize collisions, because two
mobile units may both be in range of a common access point, but out of range of
each other.
The 802.11 has two basic modes of operation:
Ad hoc mode enables peer-to-peer transmission between mobile units.

Infrastructure mode in which mobile units communicate through an access point

that serves as a bridge to a wired network infrastructure is the more common wireless
LAN application the one being covered.

Since wireless communication uses a more open medium for communication in

comparison to wired LANs, the 802.11 designers also included shared-key encryption
mechanisms: Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP), Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA, WPA2),
to secure wireless computer networks.

Bridge
A bridge can be used to connect networks, typically of different types. A wireless 
Ethernet bridge allows the connection of devices on a wired Ethernet network to a
wireless network. The bridge acts as the connection point to the Wireless LAN.
 Roaming
There are 2 definitions for wireless LAN roaming:
Internal Roaming (1): The Mobile Station (MS) moves from one access point
(AP) to another AP within a home network because the signal strength is too weak.

A Mobile Station roaming from one access point to another often interrupts the
flow of data between the Mobile Station and an application connected to the
network. The Mobile Station, for instance, periodically monitors the presence of
alternative access points (ones that will provide a better connection). At some
point, based upon proprietary mechanisms, the Mobile Station decides to re-
associate with an access point having a stronger wireless signal. The Mobile Station,
however, may lose a connection with an access point before associating with
another access point. In order to provide reliable connections with applications, the
Mobile Station must generally include software that provides session persistence.
External Roaming (2): The MS(client) moves into a WLAN of another Wireless
Internet Service Provider (WISP) and takes their services (Hotspot). The user can
independently of his home network use another foreign network, if this is open for
visitors. There must be special authentication and billing systems for mobile
services in a foreign network.
The term Wi-Fi suggests Wireless Fidelity, resembling the long-established audio-
equipment classification term high fidelity (in use since the 1930s[5]) or Hi-Fi (used
since 1950[5]). Even the Wi-Fi Alliance itself has often used the phrase Wireless
Fidelity in its press releases[6][7] and documents;[8][9] the term also appears in a
white paper on Wi-Fi from ITAA.[10] However, based on Phil Belanger's[note 1]
 statement, the term Wi-Fi was never supposed to mean anything at all

Campus-wide Wi-Fi
Carnegie Mellon University built the first wireless Internet network in the world at
their Pittsburgh campus in 1994,[24] long before Wi-Fi branding originated in 1999.
Many traditional college campuses provide at least partial wireless Wi-Fi internet
coverage.

Drexel University in Philadelphia made history by becoming the United State's first
major university to offer completely wireless Internet access across the entire
campus in 2000. [25]
Uses     
Internet access
A roof-mounted Wi-Fi antenna
A Wi-Fi enabled device such as a personal computer, video game console,
smartphone or digital audio player can connect to the Internet when within range of a 
wireless network connected to the Internet. The coverage of one or more
(interconnected) access points — called hotspots — can comprise an area as small
as a few rooms or as large as many square miles. Coverage in the larger area may
depend on a group of access points with overlapping coverage

In addition to private use in homes and offices, Wi-Fi can provide public access at Wi-
Fi hotspots provided either free-of-charge or to subscribers to various commercial
services.
Organizations and businesses - such as those running airports, hotels and
restaurants - often provide free-use hotspots to attract or assist clients. Enthusiasts or
authorities who wish to provide services or even to promote business in selected
areas sometimes provide free Wi-Fi access.
The Bluetooth SIG
The name “Bluetooth” and its logo are trademarked by the privately held trade
association named the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG). 
Founded in September 1998, the Bluetooth SIG is a unification of leaders in the
telecommunications, computing, network, industrial
automation,and Automotive industries.
The Bluetooth SIG includes promoter member companies Microsoft, Ericsson, IBM,
Intel,Motorola, Nokia, and Toshiba, plus thousands of Associate and Adopter
member companies
Why is It Called Bluetooth?
The developers of this wireless technology first used the name "Bluetooth" as a
code name, but as time past, the name stuck.
The word "Bluetooth" is taken from the 10th century Danish King Harald
Bluetooth.
King Bluetooth had been influential in uniting Scandinavian Europe during an era
when the region was torn apart by wars and feuding clans.
The founders of the Bluetooth SIG felt the name was fitting because:
1) Bluetooth technology was first developed in Scandinavia, and
2) Bluetooth technology is able to unite differing industries such as the cell phone,
computing, and automotive markets. Bluetooth wireless technology simplifies and
combines multiple forms of wireless communication into a single, secure, low-
power, low-cost, globally available radio frequency.
Presentation Outline
• Wireless Technology overview
• The IEEE 802.11 WLAN Standards
• Secure Wireless LANs
• Migrating to Wireless LANs (Cutting the cord)
Wireless?
• A wireless LAN or WLAN is a wireless local area
network that uses radio waves as its carrier.
• The last link with the users is wireless, to give a
network connection to all users in a building or
campus.
• The backbone network usually uses cables
Common Topologies
The wireless LAN connects to a wired LAN

• There is a need of an access point that bridges wireless LAN traffic into the
wired LAN.
• The access point (AP) can also act as a repeater for wireless nodes,
effectively doubling the maximum possible distance between nodes.
Common Topologies
Complete Wireless Networks

• The physical size of the network is determined by the maximum reliable

propagation range of the radio signals.
• Referred to as ad hoc networks
• Are self-organizing networks without any centralized control
• Suited for temporary situations such as meetings and conferences.
How do wireless LANs work?
Wireless LANs operate in almost the same way as
wired LANs, using the same networking protocols
and supporting the most of the same
applications.
How are WLANs Different?
• They use specialized physical and data link
protocols
• They integrate into existing networks through access
points which provide a bridging function
• They let you stay connected as you roam from one
coverage area to another
• They have unique security considerations
• They have specific interoperability requirements
• They require different hardware
• They offer performance that differs from wired
LANs.
Physical and Data Link Layers
Physical Layer:
• The wireless NIC takes frames of data from
the link layer, scrambles the data in a
predetermined way, then uses the modified
data stream to modulate a radio carrier
signal.
Data Link Layer:
• Uses Carriers-Sense-Multiple-Access with
Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA).
Integration With Existing Networks
• Wireless Access Points (APs) - a small device
that bridges wireless traffic to your network.
• Most access points bridge wireless LANs into
Ethernet networks, but Token-Ring options are
available as well.
Integration With Existing Networks
Roaming
• Users maintain a continuous connection as they roam
from one physical area to another
• Mobile nodes automatically register with the new
access point.
• Methods: DHCP, Mobile IP
• IEEE 802.11 standard does not
address roaming, you may need
to purchase equipment from one
vendor if your users need to roam
from one access point to another.
Security
• In theory, spread spectrum radio signals are
inherently difficult to decipher without knowing
the exact hopping sequences or direct
sequence codes used
• The IEEE 802.11 standard specifies optional
security called "Wired Equivalent Privacy"
whose goal is that a wireless LAN offer privacy
equivalent to that offered by a wired LAN. The
standard also specifies optional authentication
measures.
Interoperability
• Before the IEEE 802.11 interoperability was based on
cooperation between vendors.
• IEEE 802.11 only standardizes the physical and
medium access control layers.
• Vendors must still work with each other to ensure
their IEEE 802.11 implementations interoperate
• Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance (WECA)
introduces the Wi-Fi Certification to ensure cross-
vendor interoperability of 802.11b solutions
Hardware
• PC Card, either with integral antenna or with
external antenna/RF module.
• ISA Card with external antenna connected by
cable.
• Handheld terminals
• Access points
Hardware

CISCO Aironet 350 series Wireless Handheld Terminal

Semi Parabolic Antenna BreezeCOM AP

Performance
• 802.11a offers speeds with a theoretically
maximum rate of 54Mbps in the 5 GHz band
• 802.11b offers speeds with a theoretically
maximum rate of 11Mbps at in the 2.4 GHz
spectrum band
• 802.11g is a new standard for data rates of up
to a theoretical maximum of 54 Mbps at 2.4
GHz. 
What is 802.11?
• A family of wireless LAN (WLAN) specifications
developed by a working group at the Institute of
Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE)
• Defines standard for WLANs using the following four
technologies
• Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
• Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
• Infrared (IR)
• Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
• Versions: 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11e,
802.11f, 802.11i
802.11 - Transmission
• Most wireless LAN products operate in
unlicensed radio bands
• 2.4 GHz is most popular
• Available in most parts of the world
• No need for user licensing
• Most wireless LANs use spread-spectrum radio
• Resistant to interference, secure
• Two popular methods
• Frequency Hopping (FH)
• Direct Sequence (DS)
Frequency Hopping Vs. Direct Sequence
• FH systems use a radio carrier that “hops” from frequency to
frequency in a pattern known to both transmitter and receiver
• Easy to implement
• Resistance to noise
• Limited throughput (2-3 Mbps @ 2.4 GHz)
• DS systems use a carrier that remains fixed to a specific
frequency band. The data signal is spread onto a much larger
range of frequencies (at a much lower power level) using a
specific encoding scheme.
• Much higher throughput than FH (11 Mbps)
• Better range
• Less resistant to noise (made up for by redundancy – it transmits at
least 10 fully redundant copies of the original signal at the same time)
802.11a
• Employs Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM)
• Offers higher bandwidth than that of 802.11b, DSSS
(Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)
• 802.11a MAC (Media Access Control) is same as
802.11b
• Operates in the 5 GHz range
802.11a Advantages
• Ultra-high spectrum efficiency
• 5 GHz band is 300 MHz (vs. 83.5 MHz @ 2.4 GHz)
• More data can travel over a smaller amount of
bandwidth
• High speed
• Up to 54 Mbps
• Less interference
• Fewer products using the frequency
• 2.4 GHz band shared by cordless phones, microwave
ovens, Bluetooth, and WLANs
802.11a Disadvantages
• Standards and Interoperability
• Standard not accepted worldwide
• No interoperability certification available
for 802.11a products
• Not compatible or interoperable with 802.11b
• Legal issues
• License-free spectrum in 5 GHz band not
available worldwide
• Market
• Beyond LAN-LAN bridging, there is limited interest for
5 GHz adoption
802.11a Disadvantages
• Cost
• 2.4 GHz will still has >40% cost advantage
• Range
• At equivalent power, 5 GHz range will be ~50% of
2.4 GHz
• Power consumption
• Higher data rates and increased signal require more
power
• OFDM is less power-efficient then DSSS
802.11a Applications
• Building-to-building connections
• Video, audio conferencing/streaming video,
and audio
• Large file transfers, such as engineering
CAD drawings
• Faster Web access and browsing
• High worker density or high throughput scenarios
• Numerous PCs running graphics-intensive applications
802.11a Vs. 802.11b
802.11a vs. 802.11a 802.11b
802.11b
Raw data rates Up to 54 Mbps Up to 11 Mbps
(54, 48, 36, 24,18, 12 (11, 5.5, 2, and
and 6 Mbps) 1 Mbps)

Range 50 Meters 100 Meters

Bandwidth UNII and ISM ISM (2.4000—

(5 GHz range) 2.4835 GHz range)

Modulation OFDM technology DSSS technology

802.11g
• 802.11g is a high-speed extension to 802.11b
• Compatible with 802.11b
• High speed up to 54 Mbps
• 2.4 GHz (vs. 802.11a, 5 GHz)
• Using ODFM for backward compatibility
• Adaptive Rate Shifting
802.11g Advantages
• Provides higher speeds and higher capacity
requirements for applications
• Wireless Public Access
• Compatible with existing 802.11b standard
• Leverages Worldwide spectrum availability
in 2.4 GHz
• Likely to be less costly than 5 GHz alternatives
• Provides easy migration for current users of 802.11b
WLANs
• Delivers backward support for existing 802.11b products
• Provides path to even higher speeds in the future
802.11e Introduces Quality of Service
• Also know as P802.11 TGe
• Purpose:
• To enhance the 802.11 Medium Access
Control (MAC) to improve and manage
Quality of Service (QoS)
• Cannot be supported in current chip design
• Requires new radio chips
• Can do basic QoS in MAC layer
802.11f – Inter Access Point Protocol
• Also know as P802.11 TGf
• Purpose:
• To develop a set of requirements for Inter-Access
Point Protocol (IAPP), including operational and
management aspects
802.11b Security Features
• Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) – A protocol to
protect link-level data during wireless transmission
between clients and access points.
• Services:
• Authentication: provides access control to the network by
denying access to client stations that fail to authenticate
properly.
• Confidentiality: intends to prevent information
compromise from casual eavesdropping
• Integrity: prevents messages from being modified while in
transit between the wireless client and the access point.
Authentication
Means:
• Based on cryptography
• Non-cryptographic
• Both are identity-based verification mechanisms
(devices request access based on the SSID –
Service Set Identifier of the wireless network).
Authentication
• Authentication techniques
Privacy
• Cryptographic techniques
• WEP Uses RC4 symmetric key, stream cipher
algorithm to generate a pseudo random data
sequence. The stream is XORed with the data
to be transmitted
• Key sizes: 40bits to 128bits
• Unfortunately, recent attacks have shown that
the WEP approach for privacy is vulnerable to
certain attack regardless of key size
Data Integrity
• Data integrity is ensured by a simple encrypted
version of CRC (Cyclic Redundant Check)
• Also vulnerable to some attacks
Security Problems
• Security features in Wireless products are frequently
not enabled.
• Use of static WEP keys (keys are in use for a very long
time). WEP does not provide key management.
• Cryptographic keys are short.
• No user authentication occurs – only devices are
authenticated. A stolen device can access the network.
• Identity based systems are vulnerable.
• Packet integrity is poor.
Other WLAN Security Mechanisms
• 3Com Dynamic Security Link
• CISCO LEAP - Lightweight Extensible Authentication
Protocol
• IEEE 802.1x – Port-Based Network Access Control
• RADIUS Authentication Support
• EAP-MD5
• EAP-TLS
• EAP-TTLS
• PEAP - Protected EAP
• TKIP - Temporal Key Integrity Protocol
• IEEE 802.11i
WLAN Migration – Cutting The Cord
• Essential Questions
• Choosing the Right Technology
• Data Rates
• Access Point Placement and Power
• Antenna Selection and Placement
• Connecting to the Wired LAN
• The Site Survey
Essential Questions
• Why is the organization considering wireless?
Allows to clearly define requirements of the
WLAN -> development plan
• How many users require mobility?
• What are the applications that will run over the
WLAN? Helps to determine bandwidth
requirements, a criteria to choose between
available technologies. Wireless is a shared
medium, not switched!!!
Choose the right technology
• Usually IEEE 802.11b or 802.11a
• 802.11b offers interoperability (WECA Wi-Fi
Certification Program)
• 802.11a offers higher data rates (up to 54
mbps) -> higher throughput per user. Limited
interoperability.
Data rates
• Data rates affect range
• 802.11b 1 to 11 Mbps in 4 increments
• 802.11a 6 to 54 Mbps in 7 increments
• The minimum data rate must be determined at design
time
• Selecting only the highest data rate will require a
greater number of APs to cover a specific area
• Compromise between data rates and overall system
cost
Access Point Placement and Power
• Typically – mounted at ceiling height.
• Between 15 and 25 feet (4.5m to 8m)
• The greater the height, the greater the
difficulty to get power to the unit. Solution:
consider devices that can be powered using
CAT5 Ethernet cable (CISCO Aironet 1200
Series).
• Access points have internal or external
antennas
Antenna Selection and Placement
• Permanently attached.
• Remote antennas connected using an antenna cable.
• Coax cable used for RF has a high signal loss, should
not be mounted more than a 1 or 2 meters away from
the device.
• Placement: consider building construction, ceiling
height, obstacles, and aesthetics. Different materials
(cement, steel) have different radio propagation
characteristics.
Connecting to the Wired LAN
• Consider user mobility
• If users move between subnets, there are
challenges to consider.
• OSes like Windows XP and 2000, Linux support
DHCP to obtain the new IP address for the
subnet. Certain applications such as VPN will
fail.
• Solution: access points in a roaming area are
on the same segment.
The Site Survey
• Helps define the coverage areas, data rates,
the precise placement of access point.
• Gather information: diagramming the coverage
area and measuring the signal strength, SNR
(signal to noise ratio), RF interference levels
Site Survey
Vendor Information
• CISCO Systems Wireless
http://www.cisco.com/warp/public/44/jump/wireless.
shtml
• 3Com Wireless
http://www.3com.com/products/en_US/prodlist.jsp?
tab=cat&pathtype=purchase&cat=13&selcat=Wireless
+Products
• Breeze Wireless Communications
http://www.breezecom.com
• Lucent Technologies
http://www.wavelan.com
• Symbol Technologies http://www.symbol.com
References
• CISCO Packet Magazine, 2nd Quarter 2002
http://www.cisco.com/en/US/about/ac123/ac11
4/ac173/ac168/about_cisco_packet_issue_hom
e.html
• 3Com University – Wireless LANs A Technology
Overview www.3com.com/3comu
• National Institute of Standards and Technology
Wireless Network Security
http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/drafts/draft-
sp800-48.pdf